Table 5 (XXII) shows the
percentage
of neurotic in each quartile who had been diagnosed as presenting various additional "fea?
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
A majority were between 20 and 40 years-very few being under 20.
Sex. There were more women than men, due to the greater number of women patients in the Clinic as a whole. Most results were computed for men and women separately.
Marital status. Of the men, 58 per cent were married, 36 per cent unmar- ried, and 6 per cent divorced. In the case of the women, 62 per cent were married, 3I per cent unmarried, and 7 per cent divorced. Of the men who were married or who had been married, 56 per cent had children, 44 pet cent had no children. Of the women who were married or who had been married, 67 per cent had children, 33 per cent no children.
Education. Records were available on 46 of the men and 66 of the women; These records are probably not entirely accurate, since many people with little schooling try to conceal this fact. On the whole, however, the figures are well confirmed by inspection of the data on occupation. The majority
'of the group had completed high school, all had completed grammar school, and some had college educations. In computing averages, I year was added to the number of grades completed when there was additional vocational training such as nursing, business college, music conservatory, and so forth! The mean number of years of schooling for the men was I2. 2, for the women
12? 5?
Intelligence. Usable intelligence quotients were available on only one-thint
of the group. The only scores considered were those obtained by means of the Wechsler-Bellevue Test of Adult Intelligence. Among these, the onlyl subtests included were those judged as most probably valid, that is, as no? much affected by temporary disturbance due to the neurotic or psychoti~ condition. Since all cases showing wide discrepancies between two subtestSf and many others with low scores, were excluded, the obtained average I. Q. l
J
. l
? PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH AND POTENTIAL FASCISM 895
of I I5 (for men and women combined, N = 37) seems spuriously high, the true average for the group probably being closer to IIO. This agrees pretty well \Vith an estimate made by the Chief Psychologist regarding the Langley Porter ? clinic population as a whole. It is slightly but significantly above the average of wo for the population at large.
Parents' birthplace. A considerable number of subjects had foreign-born parents. In the case of the men 70 per cent said both parents were born in the U. S. , I2 per cent gave both parents as foreign born, I6 per cent had one foreign-born parent, and 2 per cent gave no answer. In the case of the women, there were 65 per cent with both parents born in the U. S. , I8 per cent with both parents foreign born, I3 per cent with one foreign-born parent, and 4 per cent gave no answer.
Income. The data here (obtained on the questionnaire) are very incomplete because a great many subjects left the question unanswered or put "none"- either because of a sense of privacy or because they were temporarily unem- ployed due to their illness. In the case of the women the data are less com- plete than for the men, because on some of the questionnaire blanks used there was no question about husband's income. For the 33 men who indicated their income, the figures are as follows:
under $2,ooo a year: I8 per cent $2,ooo to $2,900 a year: 42 per cent $3,ooo to $3,900 a year: 28 per cent $4,ooo or above, a year: I2 per cent
Of the women, only I9 reported their own income and 29 gave the hus- band's income. None of the women earned $4,ooo or more; only 5 husbands earned $4,ooo or more. Most of the stated incomes fell between $2,ooo and $3,900.
Occupation. Of the 50 men, 22 per cent classed themselves as unemployed, students, etc. , 4I per cent could be classed as skilled workers, 2I per cent as white collar, and w per cent as professional workers. There were one un- skilled worker and two seamen. Of the 6o women who gave an occupation, 58 per cent were housewives, 23 per cent clerical or sales personnel, 8 per cent held other nonprofessional jobs, 5 per cent had professions, and 6 per cent were students.
Religion. Many religious denominations were represented in this group. They are discussed more fully in relation to political and social ideology, as revealed by the questionnaire, in Chapter VI. About one-half were Protestants and one-fifth to one-fourth were Catholics; the rest were agnostic or declined to state a preference.
Politics. With respect to political group membership the men were dis- tributed as follows: Blank, undecided, I6 per cent; Republicans, 24 per cent; Democrats, 54 per cent; Socialists and Communists, 6 per cent. The women
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
were grouped in the following way: Blank, undecided, 25 per cent; Re- publicans, 17 per cent; Democrats, 54 per cent; Socialists and Communists, 4 per cent.
These socioeconomic characteristics of our group were similar to those of several other groups in the study as a whole. Attempts to compare our sample with other clinic groups with regard to socioeconomic characteristics and psychiatric diagnostic groupings would have been rather difficult and was not necessary for our purpose. Since the Clinic draws its patients from a wide variety of sources, and attempts to serve as many applicants as possible, regardless of ability to pay, the Langley Porter population as a whole and our sample in particular is probably fairly characteristic of groups of patients from similar public psychiatric clinics in large American cities.
C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
The scales used included the 10-item E scale from Form 6o, a 28-item F scale, and two different PEC scales-a s-item one and a 12-item one. One- third of the questionnaires had been collected when the new and improved Form 45 was completed, and it seemed advisable to use it because it had better statistical properties, and because better comparisons between the Langley Porter group and other, nonpsychiatric groups could be made.
The main concern in the present chapter is with the characteristics of subjects scoring high and of subjects scoring low on the E scale. The sta- tistical properties of the E scale, for the Langley Porter groups of men and women are shown in Table 1 (XXII).
TABLE 1 (XXII)
RELIABILITY DATA ON THEE SCALE. FOR PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC MEN AND WOMEN
Men(N"'50)
Reliability . 75
Mean (total) 3. 67
Women(N"71) . 84
3. 65 4. 23 3. 06
1. 60 1. 81 1. 64
4. 21 1. 00-7. 00
Mean (Part A) Mean (Part B)
S. D. (total)
S. D. (Part A)
S. D. (PartB) 1. 70
Mean D. P. 4. 11 Range 1. 00-6. 20
3. 92 3. 42
1. 59 1. 78
? PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH AND POTENTIAL FASCISM 897
The reliability of the scale is as high as that found in most other groups, and the mean D. P. is somewhat higher. (The mean scores show the Clinic men and women to be slightly-but not significantly-less prejudiced than the average for other groups. ) The mean scores (men: 3. 67; women: 3. 65) are close to the figures obtained by averaging the results for all groups studied
(Chapter IV). The means for men and for women are practically the same.
That both men and women score higher on Part A (the non-A-S part) of the scale than on Part B is consistent with findings in other groups. In gen- eral there is very little in the E-scale responses of the Langley Porter group that would distinguish them from most of the other groups studied. 3
As we have shown above, the Clinic sample was somewhat selected for age, intelligence, education, and cooperativeness. All these factors are cor- related to some extent with ethnocentrism. Therefore, the average ethno- centrism score of psychiatric patients in general or of all "neurotic and psychotic persons" in the general population could be expected to be some- what higher. 4
D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARlOUS PSYCHIA TRIC CLASSIFICA TIONS
We undertook first to investigate the following questions: (I) Is ethno- centrism related to the two major psychiatric groupings, "neurotic" and "psychotic"? (2) Is it related to any of the specific psychiatric classifica- tions? With these questions in mind, E scores were compared with the of- ficial psychiatric diagnoses assigned by the staff psychiatrists. Psychiatric diagnoses were available for I I 4 out of our total of I 2 I subjects. Of the re- maining 7 cases, 2 had not yet been diagnosed, 5 had been given question- naire forms without the usual identifying code number so that it was not possible to look up the appropriate files.
Table 2 (XXII) shows the proportion of subjects falling into various psychiatric classifications. These classifications represent the official diagnoses enteted by the Clinic staff into the subjects' case records. The definitions of the psychiatric categories and the manner in which they were assigned will be discussed in the next section.
Twenty-four per cent of our diagnosed group had been classed as psy-
3 See Chapters V, VII, and XV for results obtained from the Langley Porter Clinic group by means of the PEC and F scales and the projective items.
4 See Chapter VIII for the relationship of ethnocentrism to intelligence; Chapter IV for ethnocentrism and education; Chapters I, XII and XV for resistance of high scorers to psychological procedures and explanations. Further support is given by the fact that a group of psychiatric patients (largely non-self-referred and emphasizing organic causes of their problems) in a Veterans' Administration hospital obtained a mean of nearly 5. o on both the E and F scales (unpublished material of D. ]. Levinson).
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY TABLE 2 (XXII)
INCIDENCE OF VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC DIAGNOSES IN THE SAMPLE OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTSa
Psychoses:
Schizophrenia Manic depressive Other psychoses
Total psychoses
Psychoneuroses:
psychoneurosis mixed Reactive depression Anxiety state Anxiety hysteria Hysteria Hypochondriasis Psychasthenia
(obsessive-compulsive neurosis)
Obsessive-compulsive ruminative state
Total neuroses
No. Percentage
15 13. 2 10 8. 8 2 1. 8
27 23. 7
34 29. 8 2 1. 8 20 17. 5 3 2. 6 6 5. 3 1 0. 9 3 2. 6
2 1. 8
71 62. 3
3 2. 6 2 1. 8 7 6. 1 4 3. 5
16 14. 0
opob as a whole (percentage)
9. 2 5. 2
Other disorders:
. Psychopathic personality
Alcoholism Ulcers Miscellaneous
Total other disorders
aN is 114; of these 29% are inpatients, 65% outpatients, and 6% (ulcer cases) are from the research project in psychosomatic medicine.
bopo =outpatient department.
chotic, 62 per cent as psychoneurotic. The remaining I4 per cent were con- sidered to have "other disorders" such as "psychopathic personality," "alcoholism," and so forth. For our purposes, only those categories were included which appeared with some frequency. Thus, among the psychoses we have included only schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychoses. The remaining 2 cases, I "epiplepsy with psychosis," I "undiagnosed psychosis,'~ have been placed together under the heading "other psychoses. "
The cases appearing together under the heading "other disorders" include' (I) 7 male patients suffering from stomach ulcers who had come to th~
43. 6
? PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH AND POTENTIAL FASCISM 899
Clinic not for psychiatric help but to serve as subjects in a study in psycho- somatic medicine. These cases were officially classed as "mixed neurosis," but were so different from the group here classified "psychoneurosis, mixed type" that they were considered separately for the purposes of the present in- vestigation; (2) several cases classified as "psychopathic personality" and "al- coholism without psychosis"; (3) 4 cases, grouped under the heading "miscellaneous. " These include 2 cases diagnosed "schizoid personality," I case of "primary behavior disorder," and I "post-traumatic personality dis- order. "
Our list of diagnostic categories covers only the main headings (or names of disorders) used for psychiatric classification. Often these were the only categories assigned. Usually, however, the cases were further described in terms of their particular symptomatology (e. g. , psychoneurosis, mixed; anxiety and depressive features; or schizophrenia, paranoid type). The num- ber of cases from our sample in each of the resulting finer subgroups was too small to be considered here.
No figures on the distribution of the various groups in the Clinic popula- tion as a whole were available for comparison with our figures. In Table 2 (XXII) we have included a few figures covering the outpatient department alone. These show that our group contains more psychotics and psycho- neurotics (and consequently fewer cases falling into the "other disorders") than the outpatient clinic as a whole. This is to be expected, because 29 per cent of our group came from the inpatient department where most cases have a diagnosis of psychosis or neurosis.
In making the formal diagnoses, the physicians were supposed to follow the official list of mental disorders, set up by the American Psychiatric Associa- tion. (Condensed Form of New Classification Adopted by the Committee on Statistics and Approved by the Council, December 27, I933? )
The classifications in this list are based on symptomatology rather than on personality dynamics. Thus, a "psychoneurosis" is a mental disorder in which the main symptoms are hysterical, compulsive, or anxiety manifestations. In the absence of such symptoms, many peculiarities of behavior, e. g. , sexual perversions, alcoholism, delinquency, would not be considered "neurotic," but would be categorized as "primary behavior disorder," "alcoholism," "psychopathic personality. "
In most of our cases, a preliminary diagnosis was assigned by the patient's psychiatrist. In a conference with the director of the department (outpatient or inpatient) an official diagnosis was then worked out on the basis of the case history presented by the physician. We had no way of actually measur- ing the reliability of the psychiatric diagnoses. It is our guess, however, that there was considerable unreliability. One source of unreliability probably lies in the categories themselves, which are rather broadly defined. Also it is
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
often unclear whether a case should be classed as a "mixed neurosis" or whether one type of symptom stands out sufficiently to warrant a diagnosis such as "hysteria" or "hypochondriasis. " Then also, there is sometimes the question of which symptoms are the predominant ones.
The categories, then, leave a great deal to the subjective judgment of each physician. And it is possible for the physicians to use the classification scheme in various ways, according to their predilections and theoretical orientations. Thus, unreliability of the classifications is no doubt further increased by the fact that the Langley Porter Clinic, at the time of the present research, had a great number of therapists varying greatly in training, experience and theo- retical outlook. They ranged in training from supervised medical students to staff psychiatrists with many years of experience. In theoretical orientation they included strictly (Freudian) psychoanalytic, Jungian, and other dy- namic and nondynamic points of view.
Because of these sources of unreliability, one would expect to find only slight relationships between the psychiatric diagnostic categories and other variables. Furthermore, on theoretical grounds one cannot expect very clear- cut relationships between categories based entirely on symptomatology rather than on personality dynamics, and variables like ethnocentrism which seem to be directly related to certain dynamic factors. Lastly, the division of our total group into several small subgroups according to sex and diagnosis further decreased the chances of obtaining significant statistical relationships with ethnocentrism. The relationships that were nevertheless obtained seem even more significant in the light of these considerations.
The total group was divided into 8 subgroups, on the basis of sex and E quartile. The proportion of each subgroup having any given psychiatric diagnosis was then obtained (Table 3 (XXII)). Thus, the percentage of low quartile women diagnosed as schizophrenic can be compared with the proportion of schizophrenics in any other quartile or in the total sample.
In addition, the same percentages were computed for the two halves of the E distribution (Table 4 (XXII)). (This was done by combining the figures for the low and low middle quartiles, on the one hand, and those for the high middle and high quartiles, on the other. ) This increased the number oJ cases in each subgroup and made it possible to obtain more dependable critical ratios for the differences between high and low groups in terms o1 the incidence of various diagnoses within them.
Many cases, in addition to being roughly classified, were further describe( according to finer differentiating features. Because of the small number oJ cases, the additional features of only the largest single group, namely, th< neurotics, were tabulated.
Table 5 (XXII) shows the percentage of neurotic in each quartile who had been diagnosed as presenting various additional "fea? tures. " It should be remembered that these percentages are not based on th<
? Psychoses:
Schizophrenia Manic depressive Other
Total
Neuroses:
Psychoneurosis mixed Reactive depression Anxiety state Anxiety hysteria Hysteria Hypochondriasis Psychasthenia
(obsessive-compulsive) Obsessive-compulsive
ruminative state Total
Other Disorders:
Psychopathic person- ality
Alcoholism Stomach ulcers Miscellaneous Total
15. 4 9. 1 10. 4 15. 4 6. 2 2. 1 30. 8 9. 1 18. 7
15. 4 9. 1 20. 8 7. 7 2. 1 15. 4 27. 3 27. 1
7. 7 4. 2 7. 7 2. 1
53. 8 36. 4 56. 2
18. 2 4. 2 2. 1 15. 4 36. 4 14. 6
4. 2 15. 4 54. 5 25. 0
6. 3 22. 2 35. 7
16. 7 7. 1 16. 7
0 5. 6
>
OVer-all total
100. 1 100. 1
100. 0 100. 0 99. 9 100. 1 100. 1 100. 1
100. 1
100. 0 100. 0
TABLE 3 (XXII)
PERCENTAGE OF EACH E-SCALE QUARTILE FALLING INTO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC CATEGORIES
MEN Low Low High
Middle Middle
"d WQMErf MEN AND WOMEN (Jl
N=l2 N=l2
8. 3 8. 3 8. 3
8. 3 16. 7 16. 7
25. 0 33. 3 33. 3 33. 3
8. 0
66. 7 66. 7
8. 3
8. 3
8. 3 8. 3 16. 7 16. 7
N=13 N=ll N=48 N=16 N=18 N=l4 N=18
N=66
15. 2 10. 6 1. 5
N=144 0 t'"'
8. . . . 13. 2 C'l
8. 8 t'"'
1. 8 . . . .
High Total Low Low High High Total Total Middle Middle
>-< C'l :I:
6. 3 38. 9 42. 9
68. 8 33. 3 28. 6 6. 3
5. 6 7. 1 5. 6
5. 6 7. 1 5. 6
12. 5
87. 5 55. 6 42. 9
7. 1 5. 6
6. 3 7. 1 6. 3 5. 6 14. 3
22. 3
16. 7
27. 8 11. 1 11. 1
11. 1 77. 8
27. 3 23. 7
t'"' t'"'
36. 4 1. 5 10. 6
:I: 29. 8 M
1. 8 > 17. 5 ti
4. 5 2. 6
:I:
6. 0
1. 5 . 9 3. 0 2. 6
3. 0 1. 8
0
"d
g
66. 7
62. 3 . . . . >
1. 5 2. 6 1. 5 1. 8 6. 1 3. 0 3. 5 6. 0 14. 0
t'"'
'<:I
> (Jl
C'l . . . . (Jl
~
'0
0
. . . .
5. 3 > z
M
z . . . . ,
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY TABLE 4 (XXII)
PERCENTAGE OF THE UPPER AND OF THE LOWER HALVES OF THE E-SCALE DISTRIBUTION FALLING INTO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC CATEGffiiES
Psychoses:
Schizophrenia Manic depressive Other psychoses
Total psychoses
Psychoneuroses:
Psychoneurosis mixeda Reactive depression Anxiety statea Anxiety hysteria HYsteria Hypochondriasis Obsessive-compulsive Obsessive-compulsive
ruminative state
Total neuroses
Other disorders:
Psychopathic personality Alcoholism
Ulcers
Others
Total other disorders
N = 32
15. 7 12. 2 3. 1
31. 0
22. 0
- 18. 8 6. 3 9. 4
-
-
6. 3 62. 8
3. 1 2. 9 -
-- 2. 9 3. 1
5. 8 6. 2
Men WQmen
Low Half High Half Low Half High Half
N = 24
8. 3 4. 2
- 12. 5
29. 2
N = 24
12. 5 8. 3 -
20. 8
N = 34
14. 6 8. 9 -
23. 5
50. 0 2. 9 2. 9 2. 9 4. 2 4. 2 2. 9 - - 2. 9 5. 9
- 33.
Sex. There were more women than men, due to the greater number of women patients in the Clinic as a whole. Most results were computed for men and women separately.
Marital status. Of the men, 58 per cent were married, 36 per cent unmar- ried, and 6 per cent divorced. In the case of the women, 62 per cent were married, 3I per cent unmarried, and 7 per cent divorced. Of the men who were married or who had been married, 56 per cent had children, 44 pet cent had no children. Of the women who were married or who had been married, 67 per cent had children, 33 per cent no children.
Education. Records were available on 46 of the men and 66 of the women; These records are probably not entirely accurate, since many people with little schooling try to conceal this fact. On the whole, however, the figures are well confirmed by inspection of the data on occupation. The majority
'of the group had completed high school, all had completed grammar school, and some had college educations. In computing averages, I year was added to the number of grades completed when there was additional vocational training such as nursing, business college, music conservatory, and so forth! The mean number of years of schooling for the men was I2. 2, for the women
12? 5?
Intelligence. Usable intelligence quotients were available on only one-thint
of the group. The only scores considered were those obtained by means of the Wechsler-Bellevue Test of Adult Intelligence. Among these, the onlyl subtests included were those judged as most probably valid, that is, as no? much affected by temporary disturbance due to the neurotic or psychoti~ condition. Since all cases showing wide discrepancies between two subtestSf and many others with low scores, were excluded, the obtained average I. Q. l
J
. l
? PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH AND POTENTIAL FASCISM 895
of I I5 (for men and women combined, N = 37) seems spuriously high, the true average for the group probably being closer to IIO. This agrees pretty well \Vith an estimate made by the Chief Psychologist regarding the Langley Porter ? clinic population as a whole. It is slightly but significantly above the average of wo for the population at large.
Parents' birthplace. A considerable number of subjects had foreign-born parents. In the case of the men 70 per cent said both parents were born in the U. S. , I2 per cent gave both parents as foreign born, I6 per cent had one foreign-born parent, and 2 per cent gave no answer. In the case of the women, there were 65 per cent with both parents born in the U. S. , I8 per cent with both parents foreign born, I3 per cent with one foreign-born parent, and 4 per cent gave no answer.
Income. The data here (obtained on the questionnaire) are very incomplete because a great many subjects left the question unanswered or put "none"- either because of a sense of privacy or because they were temporarily unem- ployed due to their illness. In the case of the women the data are less com- plete than for the men, because on some of the questionnaire blanks used there was no question about husband's income. For the 33 men who indicated their income, the figures are as follows:
under $2,ooo a year: I8 per cent $2,ooo to $2,900 a year: 42 per cent $3,ooo to $3,900 a year: 28 per cent $4,ooo or above, a year: I2 per cent
Of the women, only I9 reported their own income and 29 gave the hus- band's income. None of the women earned $4,ooo or more; only 5 husbands earned $4,ooo or more. Most of the stated incomes fell between $2,ooo and $3,900.
Occupation. Of the 50 men, 22 per cent classed themselves as unemployed, students, etc. , 4I per cent could be classed as skilled workers, 2I per cent as white collar, and w per cent as professional workers. There were one un- skilled worker and two seamen. Of the 6o women who gave an occupation, 58 per cent were housewives, 23 per cent clerical or sales personnel, 8 per cent held other nonprofessional jobs, 5 per cent had professions, and 6 per cent were students.
Religion. Many religious denominations were represented in this group. They are discussed more fully in relation to political and social ideology, as revealed by the questionnaire, in Chapter VI. About one-half were Protestants and one-fifth to one-fourth were Catholics; the rest were agnostic or declined to state a preference.
Politics. With respect to political group membership the men were dis- tributed as follows: Blank, undecided, I6 per cent; Republicans, 24 per cent; Democrats, 54 per cent; Socialists and Communists, 6 per cent. The women
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
were grouped in the following way: Blank, undecided, 25 per cent; Re- publicans, 17 per cent; Democrats, 54 per cent; Socialists and Communists, 4 per cent.
These socioeconomic characteristics of our group were similar to those of several other groups in the study as a whole. Attempts to compare our sample with other clinic groups with regard to socioeconomic characteristics and psychiatric diagnostic groupings would have been rather difficult and was not necessary for our purpose. Since the Clinic draws its patients from a wide variety of sources, and attempts to serve as many applicants as possible, regardless of ability to pay, the Langley Porter population as a whole and our sample in particular is probably fairly characteristic of groups of patients from similar public psychiatric clinics in large American cities.
C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
The scales used included the 10-item E scale from Form 6o, a 28-item F scale, and two different PEC scales-a s-item one and a 12-item one. One- third of the questionnaires had been collected when the new and improved Form 45 was completed, and it seemed advisable to use it because it had better statistical properties, and because better comparisons between the Langley Porter group and other, nonpsychiatric groups could be made.
The main concern in the present chapter is with the characteristics of subjects scoring high and of subjects scoring low on the E scale. The sta- tistical properties of the E scale, for the Langley Porter groups of men and women are shown in Table 1 (XXII).
TABLE 1 (XXII)
RELIABILITY DATA ON THEE SCALE. FOR PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC MEN AND WOMEN
Men(N"'50)
Reliability . 75
Mean (total) 3. 67
Women(N"71) . 84
3. 65 4. 23 3. 06
1. 60 1. 81 1. 64
4. 21 1. 00-7. 00
Mean (Part A) Mean (Part B)
S. D. (total)
S. D. (Part A)
S. D. (PartB) 1. 70
Mean D. P. 4. 11 Range 1. 00-6. 20
3. 92 3. 42
1. 59 1. 78
? PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH AND POTENTIAL FASCISM 897
The reliability of the scale is as high as that found in most other groups, and the mean D. P. is somewhat higher. (The mean scores show the Clinic men and women to be slightly-but not significantly-less prejudiced than the average for other groups. ) The mean scores (men: 3. 67; women: 3. 65) are close to the figures obtained by averaging the results for all groups studied
(Chapter IV). The means for men and for women are practically the same.
That both men and women score higher on Part A (the non-A-S part) of the scale than on Part B is consistent with findings in other groups. In gen- eral there is very little in the E-scale responses of the Langley Porter group that would distinguish them from most of the other groups studied. 3
As we have shown above, the Clinic sample was somewhat selected for age, intelligence, education, and cooperativeness. All these factors are cor- related to some extent with ethnocentrism. Therefore, the average ethno- centrism score of psychiatric patients in general or of all "neurotic and psychotic persons" in the general population could be expected to be some- what higher. 4
D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARlOUS PSYCHIA TRIC CLASSIFICA TIONS
We undertook first to investigate the following questions: (I) Is ethno- centrism related to the two major psychiatric groupings, "neurotic" and "psychotic"? (2) Is it related to any of the specific psychiatric classifica- tions? With these questions in mind, E scores were compared with the of- ficial psychiatric diagnoses assigned by the staff psychiatrists. Psychiatric diagnoses were available for I I 4 out of our total of I 2 I subjects. Of the re- maining 7 cases, 2 had not yet been diagnosed, 5 had been given question- naire forms without the usual identifying code number so that it was not possible to look up the appropriate files.
Table 2 (XXII) shows the proportion of subjects falling into various psychiatric classifications. These classifications represent the official diagnoses enteted by the Clinic staff into the subjects' case records. The definitions of the psychiatric categories and the manner in which they were assigned will be discussed in the next section.
Twenty-four per cent of our diagnosed group had been classed as psy-
3 See Chapters V, VII, and XV for results obtained from the Langley Porter Clinic group by means of the PEC and F scales and the projective items.
4 See Chapter VIII for the relationship of ethnocentrism to intelligence; Chapter IV for ethnocentrism and education; Chapters I, XII and XV for resistance of high scorers to psychological procedures and explanations. Further support is given by the fact that a group of psychiatric patients (largely non-self-referred and emphasizing organic causes of their problems) in a Veterans' Administration hospital obtained a mean of nearly 5. o on both the E and F scales (unpublished material of D. ]. Levinson).
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY TABLE 2 (XXII)
INCIDENCE OF VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC DIAGNOSES IN THE SAMPLE OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTSa
Psychoses:
Schizophrenia Manic depressive Other psychoses
Total psychoses
Psychoneuroses:
psychoneurosis mixed Reactive depression Anxiety state Anxiety hysteria Hysteria Hypochondriasis Psychasthenia
(obsessive-compulsive neurosis)
Obsessive-compulsive ruminative state
Total neuroses
No. Percentage
15 13. 2 10 8. 8 2 1. 8
27 23. 7
34 29. 8 2 1. 8 20 17. 5 3 2. 6 6 5. 3 1 0. 9 3 2. 6
2 1. 8
71 62. 3
3 2. 6 2 1. 8 7 6. 1 4 3. 5
16 14. 0
opob as a whole (percentage)
9. 2 5. 2
Other disorders:
. Psychopathic personality
Alcoholism Ulcers Miscellaneous
Total other disorders
aN is 114; of these 29% are inpatients, 65% outpatients, and 6% (ulcer cases) are from the research project in psychosomatic medicine.
bopo =outpatient department.
chotic, 62 per cent as psychoneurotic. The remaining I4 per cent were con- sidered to have "other disorders" such as "psychopathic personality," "alcoholism," and so forth. For our purposes, only those categories were included which appeared with some frequency. Thus, among the psychoses we have included only schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychoses. The remaining 2 cases, I "epiplepsy with psychosis," I "undiagnosed psychosis,'~ have been placed together under the heading "other psychoses. "
The cases appearing together under the heading "other disorders" include' (I) 7 male patients suffering from stomach ulcers who had come to th~
43. 6
? PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH AND POTENTIAL FASCISM 899
Clinic not for psychiatric help but to serve as subjects in a study in psycho- somatic medicine. These cases were officially classed as "mixed neurosis," but were so different from the group here classified "psychoneurosis, mixed type" that they were considered separately for the purposes of the present in- vestigation; (2) several cases classified as "psychopathic personality" and "al- coholism without psychosis"; (3) 4 cases, grouped under the heading "miscellaneous. " These include 2 cases diagnosed "schizoid personality," I case of "primary behavior disorder," and I "post-traumatic personality dis- order. "
Our list of diagnostic categories covers only the main headings (or names of disorders) used for psychiatric classification. Often these were the only categories assigned. Usually, however, the cases were further described in terms of their particular symptomatology (e. g. , psychoneurosis, mixed; anxiety and depressive features; or schizophrenia, paranoid type). The num- ber of cases from our sample in each of the resulting finer subgroups was too small to be considered here.
No figures on the distribution of the various groups in the Clinic popula- tion as a whole were available for comparison with our figures. In Table 2 (XXII) we have included a few figures covering the outpatient department alone. These show that our group contains more psychotics and psycho- neurotics (and consequently fewer cases falling into the "other disorders") than the outpatient clinic as a whole. This is to be expected, because 29 per cent of our group came from the inpatient department where most cases have a diagnosis of psychosis or neurosis.
In making the formal diagnoses, the physicians were supposed to follow the official list of mental disorders, set up by the American Psychiatric Associa- tion. (Condensed Form of New Classification Adopted by the Committee on Statistics and Approved by the Council, December 27, I933? )
The classifications in this list are based on symptomatology rather than on personality dynamics. Thus, a "psychoneurosis" is a mental disorder in which the main symptoms are hysterical, compulsive, or anxiety manifestations. In the absence of such symptoms, many peculiarities of behavior, e. g. , sexual perversions, alcoholism, delinquency, would not be considered "neurotic," but would be categorized as "primary behavior disorder," "alcoholism," "psychopathic personality. "
In most of our cases, a preliminary diagnosis was assigned by the patient's psychiatrist. In a conference with the director of the department (outpatient or inpatient) an official diagnosis was then worked out on the basis of the case history presented by the physician. We had no way of actually measur- ing the reliability of the psychiatric diagnoses. It is our guess, however, that there was considerable unreliability. One source of unreliability probably lies in the categories themselves, which are rather broadly defined. Also it is
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
often unclear whether a case should be classed as a "mixed neurosis" or whether one type of symptom stands out sufficiently to warrant a diagnosis such as "hysteria" or "hypochondriasis. " Then also, there is sometimes the question of which symptoms are the predominant ones.
The categories, then, leave a great deal to the subjective judgment of each physician. And it is possible for the physicians to use the classification scheme in various ways, according to their predilections and theoretical orientations. Thus, unreliability of the classifications is no doubt further increased by the fact that the Langley Porter Clinic, at the time of the present research, had a great number of therapists varying greatly in training, experience and theo- retical outlook. They ranged in training from supervised medical students to staff psychiatrists with many years of experience. In theoretical orientation they included strictly (Freudian) psychoanalytic, Jungian, and other dy- namic and nondynamic points of view.
Because of these sources of unreliability, one would expect to find only slight relationships between the psychiatric diagnostic categories and other variables. Furthermore, on theoretical grounds one cannot expect very clear- cut relationships between categories based entirely on symptomatology rather than on personality dynamics, and variables like ethnocentrism which seem to be directly related to certain dynamic factors. Lastly, the division of our total group into several small subgroups according to sex and diagnosis further decreased the chances of obtaining significant statistical relationships with ethnocentrism. The relationships that were nevertheless obtained seem even more significant in the light of these considerations.
The total group was divided into 8 subgroups, on the basis of sex and E quartile. The proportion of each subgroup having any given psychiatric diagnosis was then obtained (Table 3 (XXII)). Thus, the percentage of low quartile women diagnosed as schizophrenic can be compared with the proportion of schizophrenics in any other quartile or in the total sample.
In addition, the same percentages were computed for the two halves of the E distribution (Table 4 (XXII)). (This was done by combining the figures for the low and low middle quartiles, on the one hand, and those for the high middle and high quartiles, on the other. ) This increased the number oJ cases in each subgroup and made it possible to obtain more dependable critical ratios for the differences between high and low groups in terms o1 the incidence of various diagnoses within them.
Many cases, in addition to being roughly classified, were further describe( according to finer differentiating features. Because of the small number oJ cases, the additional features of only the largest single group, namely, th< neurotics, were tabulated.
Table 5 (XXII) shows the percentage of neurotic in each quartile who had been diagnosed as presenting various additional "fea? tures. " It should be remembered that these percentages are not based on th<
? Psychoses:
Schizophrenia Manic depressive Other
Total
Neuroses:
Psychoneurosis mixed Reactive depression Anxiety state Anxiety hysteria Hysteria Hypochondriasis Psychasthenia
(obsessive-compulsive) Obsessive-compulsive
ruminative state Total
Other Disorders:
Psychopathic person- ality
Alcoholism Stomach ulcers Miscellaneous Total
15. 4 9. 1 10. 4 15. 4 6. 2 2. 1 30. 8 9. 1 18. 7
15. 4 9. 1 20. 8 7. 7 2. 1 15. 4 27. 3 27. 1
7. 7 4. 2 7. 7 2. 1
53. 8 36. 4 56. 2
18. 2 4. 2 2. 1 15. 4 36. 4 14. 6
4. 2 15. 4 54. 5 25. 0
6. 3 22. 2 35. 7
16. 7 7. 1 16. 7
0 5. 6
>
OVer-all total
100. 1 100. 1
100. 0 100. 0 99. 9 100. 1 100. 1 100. 1
100. 1
100. 0 100. 0
TABLE 3 (XXII)
PERCENTAGE OF EACH E-SCALE QUARTILE FALLING INTO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC CATEGORIES
MEN Low Low High
Middle Middle
"d WQMErf MEN AND WOMEN (Jl
N=l2 N=l2
8. 3 8. 3 8. 3
8. 3 16. 7 16. 7
25. 0 33. 3 33. 3 33. 3
8. 0
66. 7 66. 7
8. 3
8. 3
8. 3 8. 3 16. 7 16. 7
N=13 N=ll N=48 N=16 N=18 N=l4 N=18
N=66
15. 2 10. 6 1. 5
N=144 0 t'"'
8. . . . 13. 2 C'l
8. 8 t'"'
1. 8 . . . .
High Total Low Low High High Total Total Middle Middle
>-< C'l :I:
6. 3 38. 9 42. 9
68. 8 33. 3 28. 6 6. 3
5. 6 7. 1 5. 6
5. 6 7. 1 5. 6
12. 5
87. 5 55. 6 42. 9
7. 1 5. 6
6. 3 7. 1 6. 3 5. 6 14. 3
22. 3
16. 7
27. 8 11. 1 11. 1
11. 1 77. 8
27. 3 23. 7
t'"' t'"'
36. 4 1. 5 10. 6
:I: 29. 8 M
1. 8 > 17. 5 ti
4. 5 2. 6
:I:
6. 0
1. 5 . 9 3. 0 2. 6
3. 0 1. 8
0
"d
g
66. 7
62. 3 . . . . >
1. 5 2. 6 1. 5 1. 8 6. 1 3. 0 3. 5 6. 0 14. 0
t'"'
'<:I
> (Jl
C'l . . . . (Jl
~
'0
0
. . . .
5. 3 > z
M
z . . . . ,
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY TABLE 4 (XXII)
PERCENTAGE OF THE UPPER AND OF THE LOWER HALVES OF THE E-SCALE DISTRIBUTION FALLING INTO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC CATEGffiiES
Psychoses:
Schizophrenia Manic depressive Other psychoses
Total psychoses
Psychoneuroses:
Psychoneurosis mixeda Reactive depression Anxiety statea Anxiety hysteria HYsteria Hypochondriasis Obsessive-compulsive Obsessive-compulsive
ruminative state
Total neuroses
Other disorders:
Psychopathic personality Alcoholism
Ulcers
Others
Total other disorders
N = 32
15. 7 12. 2 3. 1
31. 0
22. 0
- 18. 8 6. 3 9. 4
-
-
6. 3 62. 8
3. 1 2. 9 -
-- 2. 9 3. 1
5. 8 6. 2
Men WQmen
Low Half High Half Low Half High Half
N = 24
8. 3 4. 2
- 12. 5
29. 2
N = 24
12. 5 8. 3 -
20. 8
N = 34
14. 6 8. 9 -
23. 5
50. 0 2. 9 2. 9 2. 9 4. 2 4. 2 2. 9 - - 2. 9 5. 9
- 33.
