No More Learning

The book moves more freely as he reaches Greek and Roman
times. The characters of some of the great men are given with
much insight and point, and he brings his commonsense to bear
in criticising the conduct of leaders and generals. As the book
goes on, his references to modern history in illustration of his
story grow more frequent. We feel that not only has he read
much, but that he has weighed and pondered what he has read
in the light of his own experience. In reflecting on the end of
Hannibal and Scipio, he says
Hence it comes, to wit from the envy of our equals, and jealousy of our
masters, be they kings or commonweals, that there is no profession more
unprosperous than that of men of war and great captains, being no kings. . . .
For the most of others whose virtues have raised them above the level of
their inferiors, and have surmounted their envy, yet have they been rewarded
in the end either with disgrace, banishment, or death.
Whenever he touches upon any matter of personal experience, the
interest at once quickens and the writing appears at its best.
War is always his main theme; to him, history is an account of
wars and conquests. Questions as to methods of government or
the social conditions of the people have little interest for him,
though he seems to see the importance of combining geography
with history by the descriptions he gives of the nature of the
countries, the towns and cities of which he writes. On the whole,
the best part of the book is his account of the Punic wars; there
he feels fully the interest of his story. Curiously enough, he misses
the tragic interest of the Athenian expedition to Sicily, which, in
his telling, he even manages to make dull.
Never does he lose sight of his moral purpose. His whole
object in writing was to teach a great moral : ‘it being the end
and scope of all history to teach by example of times past, such
wisdom as may guide our desires and actions. ' So he carries us
through the history of the three first Monarchies of the world';
leaving off when the fourth, Rome, was 'almost at the highest. '
He ends with these noble words on death:
0 eloquent, just and mighty death! Whom none could advise, thou hast
persuaded! What none have dared, thou hast done! And whom all the
world hath flattered, thou only hast cast out of the world and despised!


## p. 63 (#85) ##############################################

63
a
The History of the World
Thou hast drawn together all the far fetched greatness, all the pride, cruelty
and ambition of men; and covered it all over with these two narrow words:
Hic jacet.
Though, in his preface, Ralegh said of James I that
if all the malice of the world were infused into one eye, yet could it not
discern in his life, even to this day, any one of those foul spots, by which the
consciences of all the fore named princes (in effect) have been defiled; nor
any drop of that innocent blood on the sword of his justice, with which the
most that forewent him have stained both their hands and fame,
James I was displeased with the book. Perhaps he was clever
enough to discern the value of this fashionable language of
adulation; perhaps, as some said, he thought that Ralegh had
criticised too freely the character of Henry VIII, when he said
'if all the pictures and patterns of a merciless prince were lost in
the world, they might all again be painted out of the story of this
king. ' To the fanatical believer in the divine right of kings, any
censure of princes was, in itself, a crime. James appears, in
consequence, to have tried to suppress the book. In a letter
written to Venice on 5 January 1615, it is said, “Sir Walter
Ralegh's book is called in by the King's commandment, for divers
exceptions, but specially for being too saucy in censuring princes. '
There is, also, a letter from the archbishop of Canterbury, dated
22 December 1614, to the Stationers' company, saying that he
had received 'expresse directions from his Majestie that the book
latelie published by Sr Walter Rawleigh, nowe prisoner in the
Tower, should be suppressed and not suffered for hereafter to be
sould. ' The book mentioned in this letter can be none other but
the History. But the suppression seems not to have been carried
out; at any rate, the royal command did not affect the distribution
of the book. The first two editions appeared anonymously without
any title-page, but with an elaborate allegorical frontispiece,
representing Magister Vitae, standing on Death represented by a
skeleton, and Oblivion as a man asleep. Experience, as an old
woman, and Truth as a young woman, hold aloft a globe, on one
side of which fama bona and, on the other, fama mala are blowing
trumpets. On the other page is a sonnet, presumably by Ben
Jonson, as he afterwards published it under his name, containing
these lines
From death and dark Oblivion (neere the same)
The Mistresse of Man's life, grave Historie
Raising the world to good or Evill fame
Doth vindicate it to Æternitie.
The book seems to have been immediately popular. From
1614 to 1678, ten separate folio editions of it appeared, and of the


## p. 64 (#86) ##############################################

64
Sir Walter Ralegh
first edition, certainly, and probably of others, there were several
distinct issues. For the first time, English readers could enjoy an
account of the Persian, Greek and Punic wars, written in the
finest prose, as well as learned and yet popular discussions of
those questions of biblical history and chronology wbich then
interested the reading public. Wilson, in his life of James I,
written in 1653, says 'Rawleigh while he was a Prisoner, having
the Idea of the World in his contemplation, brought it to some
perfection in his excellent and incomparable history. The moral
purpose of the book also commended it to many.
It was a
favourite book amongst the puritans of the next generation.
Oliver Cromwell recommended it to his son Richard, saying,
‘Recreate yourself with Sir Walter Ralegh’s History; it is a body
of history, and will add much more to your understanding than
fragments of story. '
No doubt the popularity of the History was increased by the
sudden revulsion of feeling in favour of Ralegh, which was called
out by his tragic end, and the noble manner of his death. Men
were glad to find in it the mind of one of the most distinguished
amongst the soldiers and statesmen of the great days of Elizabeth.
Many of the reasons which led to the popularity of the History no
longer prevail with us. We value it, chiefly, as a noble monument
of Elizabethan prose, and as a revelation of the character and
mind of its author. But its place in the development of English
historical writing should not be overlooked.
None of the political treatises written by Ralegh during his
imprisonment were printed during his lifetime. The Prerogative
of Parliaments, written in 1615, was circulated in manuscript
copies and was presented to James I. In spite of the usual
adulatory preface, James was much displeased by this treatise,
which, in the form of a dialogue between a counsellor of state and
a justice of the peace, demonstrates the advantage of raising
money through parliament, instead of by benevolences and other
exceptional means. For his day, at least, Ralegh's views were
liberal—at any rate they were too liberal for James I. The
Prerogative of Parliaments was not printed till ten years later, at
Midelburge. ' The manuscript of The Cabinet Council, a treatise
on state-craft, passed into the hands of Milton, and was by him
published in 1658. Its numerous quotations from the classics
show the wide range of Ralegh's reading, and the treatment of the
subject, as well as many allusions, show his intimate acquaintance
with the writings of Machiavelli, The Maxims of State is a


## p. 65 (#87) ##############################################

Political Writings
65
We are
shorter treatise of somewhat the same kind, wise and sensible
enough, but, on the whole, it cannot be said that there is any
distinctive flavour or charm of style about these two treatises.
Ralegh's lack of humour gives a certain heaviness to his moral
and political writings. They are wanting in terse and epigrammatic
sayings, and give us the sense of being almost too wise.
tempted, as we read, to think that he followed too closely his own
precept, quoted in a paper called The Loyal Observer, printed in
the Harleian Miscellanies, 'It is an observation of judicious
Ralegh “Nothing is more an enemy to wisdom than drollery and
over sharpness of conceit. ” Ralegh's papers dealing with naval
and military affairs, such as A Discourse on War in General and
Observations on the Navy and Sea Service, are much more living
and full of interest, as written by a man having close personal
acquaintance with what he is writing about. A paper on Trade
and Commerce shows that he had studied modern conditions with
the same care as the history of the past. In the paper on A war
with Spain we have an interesting study of the relative strength
of the European powers at that time, bringing out the great
importance of the Dutch as a maritime power.
In all these occasional papers, we have constant evidence of
Ralegh’s wide knowledge, and of the way in which he had his
knowledge at his command. Always there is a remarkable
freedom in the use of historical allusions and illustrations.
The growing interest in Ralegh after his death led to the issue
of various collections of his shorter papers. The most popular of
these collections was The Remains of Sir Walter Ralegh, which
first appeared in 1651, and of which there are many subsequent
editions, varying slightly in their contents. Another interesting
sign of the popular feeling for him was a little tract of six pages,
which appeared in 1644, called To-day a man, To-morrow none,
or Sir Walter Rawleigh's Farewell to his Lady with his advice
concerning Her and her Sonne. Besides this last letter to his
wife, the tract contains the beautiful lines beginning ‘Like hermit
poor,' and the striking poem found in his Bible in the gate-house at
Westminster, written on 28 October 1618, the night before his
execution.
E. L. IV.
CH. 111.
5


## p. 66 (#88) ##############################################

CHAPTER IV
1
THE LITERATURE OF THE SEA
FROM THE ORIGINS TO HAKLUYT
है
THE great movement which stirred the minds of men in the
days of the renascence, born in a love of the intimate life of nature,
and in an abundant zeal for the glories of classic art and letters,
received a new impulse and was inspired with a fresh tendency
by the enlargement of the known world and a widening of the
horizon of the nations. There was an eager desire to learn more,
both of things at home and of the new lands which were being
disclosed by the enterprise of merchants and seamen. Curiosity
and patient zeal in search of the unknown began, indeed, at
home. We may read in The laboriouse Journey and Serche of
Johan Leylande—his new year's gift to Henry VIII—how he
had been possessed with such a desire to see the different parts
of the realm that there was
almost neyther cape nor baye, haven, creke or pere, ryver or confluence of
ryvers, breches, washes, lakes, meres, fenny waters, mountaynes, valleys,
mores, hethes, forestes, woodes, cyties, burges, castels, pryncypall manor
places, monasteryes, and colleges, but I have seane them, and noted in so
doynge a whole worlde of thynges verye memorable.
But the change now wrought in the outlook of the nations went
far outside the narrow bounds of any one country, and was more
vast than any the world had seen since the fall of the Roman
empire. If it has been recognised more often in its intellectual
character, its practical effects were seen in the discovery of new
lands and the planting of new colonies. Copernicus bad revealed
the mystery of the universe. Portuguese and Spanish navigators
had traversed the unknown seas, and John Cabot had touched the
shores of cape Breton or Labrador. Nothing now seemed
strange to any one, and, in every part of the world, there were


## p. 67 (#89) ##############################################

Early Writers
67
6
new seas and lands to explore, and new approaches to be dis-
covered to the Spice islands and Cathay. More, in his Utopia,
opened a fresh view in the realm of speculation beyond the
narrow bounds of knowledge. The most romantic poetic imagin-
ings were exceeded in wonder by the things discovered and
made known, and no marvel in The Faerie Queene exceeded the
strange experiences that storm-tossed mariners told every day on
'change to the merchant adventurers of the Muscovy and Levant
trades. “The nakedness of the Spaniards, and their long hidden
secrets, whereby they went about to delude the world,' as Hakluyt
says, “were espied. Seamen were to make literature; upon
their experience was to be built much of the literature that
followed; their expressions and words were to descend into the
common speech of the land. But, save, perhaps, in the in-
stances of Gilbert and Ralegh, English seamen, pioneers of our
maritime supremacy, were not in their own persons stirred by
the intellectual movement. Rather they were its unconscious
and often dumb instruments, while taking part in the vast
material and political change which resulted from the direction of
the capital and enterprise of merchants into fresh channels of
intercourse and trade.
It would be true to say that the foundations of England's
naval greatness were laid almost in silence, and that, though the
peculiar genius of the nation for maritime adventure was re-
cognised in the days of the early Henrys? , hardy seamen were
opening communications with the Baltic, and driving their keels
into unknown seas, long before any writer set himself to narrate
their experiences or their exploits. Monastic chroniclers had
collected the legendary lore of their predecessors, records of
kings and annals of their own time, but voyages of exploration
and discovery lay, mostly, outside the range of their experience
or their opportunities of knowledge. It is mainly from narra-
tives of pilgrimages and crusades that we learn how the known
world was being widened in those early times. The brilliant
chronicles of Giraldus Cambrensis, the quick-witted historian
who records the conquest of Ireland, are not altogether barren
of reference to events at sea, and there is some reflection of
seafaring life in the pages of Geoffrey of Monmouth. Hakluyt,
indeed, has included in the Principall Navigations the legendary
conquests of Arthur and of Malgo from the chronicles of Geoffrey,
the achievements of Edwin of Northumbria from Bede and the
1 Cl. The Libel of English Policy, etc. referred to in vol. 11 of the present work.
5--2


## p. 68 (#90) ##############################################

68 The Literature of the Sea
1
navigations of Edgar from Roger of Hoveden, Florence of Wor-
cester and others. There are in existence various narratives of
journeys to Palestine, like that of Saewulf of Malmesbury, who
went overland to Italy in 1102, sailed thence to the Ionian islands
and took ship along the coast to Joppa, where he re-embarked,
but dared not venture into the open sea for fear of the Saracens.
The voyages of Saewulf, and of Adelard, a little later, and the
exploits of the crusaders in 1147 and 1190 on the coasts of Spain
and in the Mediterranean, present a view of English enterprise that
cannot be passed by without mention, because in them we trace
the beginnings of a permanent marine, and of mercantile enter-
prise, which constituted the mainspring of the exploration of the
world and, therefore, of the literature of discovery. But the
seamen of Venice and Genoa, as well as Portuguese and Spanish
navigators, were, in the fifteenth century, more enterprising than
Englishmen, both in discovery and in the systematic recording of
voyages.
The journeys of Marco Polo had aroused interest in the study of
geography in England at the close of the thirteenth century, and
the 'travels' recorded by the Mandeville translators, considered in
a previous chapter, had their well-deserved popularity in the early
days of English prose. But the literature of travel by sea was un-
begotten, and the achievements of the captains of prince Henry,
'the navigator,' and of Columbus and his companions, made far
more sound in the world than anything done by British seamen
until the time of Drake and Hawkins. A seaman named Thylde,
whom William of Worcester mentions, preceded Columbus by
some twelve years, as we ought not to forget, sailing from
Bristol in 1480, but he battled vainly with the storms of the
north Atlantic, and the world knows infinitely more of the
great navigations of the admiral of the ocean' and of the bold
seaman Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, who first set eyes upon the
Pacific, and of Ojeda and Nicuesa, who were his equals in courage
and enterprise.
It is sometimes said that the great age of English discovery
really opened with John Cabot, who, in his effort to discover
a north-west passage to India, discovered the mainland of America
in 1497, and of him more is known than of the earlier Bristol
mariners; but even his discoveries may be accounted foreign to
the national instincts of the time, and, being himself a seaman
from the Mediterranean, his voyages seem rather to belong to the
age of Columbus and Vasco da Gama than to that which saw
6
รู้
1


## p. 69 (#91) ##############################################

The Impulse from Abroad 69
the northern enterprises of Willoughby, Chancellor and Burrough.
The scanty particulars which Hakluyt could bring together con-
cerning the explorations of John Cabot and his son Sebastian
are a very striking illustration of the paucity of literary materials
relating to the early history of English maritime discovery.
The literary impulse to the recording of voyages came from
the continent, as was inevitable, since foreigners were the pioneers
in exploration, adding new links to the long chain of seafaring
enterprise which stretched back to the beginning of Mediterranean
history. Angiolo Poliziano, professor of Greek and Latin literature
at Florence, in a letter addressed to king John II, tendered the
thanks of the cultivated world to Portugal for dragging from
secular darkness into the light of day new seas, new lands
and new worlds, and offered his services to record great voyages
while the materials should be fresh and available. At Seville,
in 1522, Peter Martyr of Anghiera, was instructed to examine
all navigators who returned, and to write the history of Spanish
explorations. He threw his whole mind into the task, was
the first historian of the discovery of America and became
known as a great cosmographer. The first Decade of his
De Orbe Novo was published at Seville in 1511, but appears
to have been surreptitiously anticipated at Venice in 1504.
Three of the Decades followed at Alcalà in 1516, and other
editions, largely augmented, were printed in 1530 and 1532,
and were subsequently translated or became the basis of editions
and works published in Italy, France and Germany. Giovanni
Battista Ramusio published collections of voyages, which went
through several editions, and told the story of Magellan's voyage
as recorded by Antonio Pigafetta. Meanwhile, the printing of
the Sumario de la natural y general Hystoria de las Indias
of Gonçalo Hernandez de Oviedo y Valdes was completed at
Toledo in 1526 and was followed, in 1552, by the Istoria de
las Indias y conquista de Mejico of Francisco Lopez de Gomara.
These, and other works, illuminated the new world for the benefit
of the old, and, working like a ferment in the minds of scholars
in every centre of learning in Europe, were a new inspiration
to Englishmen, and set in motion the navigators who issued from
English ports to conquer the mystery and win the spoils of new
lands beyond the sea.
The first English book relating to America is said to have been
printed in 1511, probably at Antwerp, by John Doesborch or
Desborowe. It has been reprinted by Arber, in his First Three


## p. 70 (#92) ##############################################

70
The Literature of the Sea
English Books on America, 1885, and is entitled Of the newelandes
and of ye people founde by the messengers of the Kynge of
Portyngale named Emanuel; but it is an arid tract, which relates
chiefly to the ten nations christened by Prester John, and reflects
the legends of the Middle Ages rather than any real knowledge
of more recent explorations. More interesting are the refer-
ences in a New Interlude and a Merry of the nature of the
Four Elements, printed by John Rastell between 1510 and 1520.
Here we have an account of the route to the new lands, and of
how men could sail 'plain eastwards and come to England again. '
The object was to cast scorn upon English mariners who had
relinquished the enterprise, with assumed reference to a supposed
failure of Sebastian Cabot in 1516—7.
In the literature of English navigation and discovery, a notable
place must be given to Richard Eden, not, indeed, as an original
narrator, but as a diligent interpreter of the work of others.
His object was to make known to his countrymen what the
Portuguese and Spaniards had done, and with that object he
translated and published in 1553, from the Latin of Sebastian
Münster's Universal Cosmography, A Treatyse of the newe India
with other new founde landes and Islands, as well eastwarde as
westwarde, as they are knowen and founde in these our dayes.
He followed this, in 1555, with a translation from Peter Martyr:
The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India, conteyning the
Navigations and Conquestes of the Spanyardes, with particular
description of the most ryche and large Landes and Islandes
lately found in the West Ocean. These Decades are narratives
of the voyages of Columbus and his companions, of Pedro Affonso,
of Vincenzo Pinzon and of Nicuesa and others, and Eden added
translations from Oviedo and matter descriptive of some other
Spanish explorations. His object was national and patriotic; and,
in presenting to his countrymen some record of the achievements
of Spanish navigators, he censures the timidity of his times, and
makes an eloquent appeal to seamen and merchants to quit the
well-worn tracks of trade and commerce and to adventure boldly
to the coasts of Florida and Newfoundland. Eden was born
about the year 1521, and was a student at Cambridge under
Sir Thomas Smith. He was a good Latin and Italian scholar,
and tells his readers that, in his youth, he had read 'the poet
Hesiodus. ' He was minded to translate the whole of the Pyro-
technica of Vannuccio Biringaccio, but, having completed only
a few chapters, he lent them to a friend to read, and they were
6


## p. 71 (#93) ##############################################

Richard Eden
71
lost. In the introduction to his translation of the Decades of
Peter Martyr, he expresses contempt for the previous issue, en-
titled, Of the newe founde landes, as 'a shiete of printed paper
(more worthy so to be called than a boke). ' He had witnessed
the splendours of the marriage procession of Philip and Mary,
and was moved by its 'within significance for the future of
England. His rendering is simple, direct and forcible, and, in
a poetical epilogue entitled Thinterpretours excuse,' he says he
has not been very curious to avoid “the scornes of Rhinoceros
nose,' nor 'the fyled judgment of severe Aristarchus. '
I am not eloquent I know it ryght well;
If I be not barbarous I desyre no more;
I have not for every woorde asked counsell
Of eloquent Eliot or Syr Thomas Moore.
Take it therefore as I have intended;
The faultes with favour may soon be amended.
Eden was not content to point out merely what foreigners had
accomplished; he desired to show what were the fruits of their
discoveries and to explain the secrets of land, sea and stars which
must be known to those who would follow in their footsteps.
Accordingly, in 1561, at the expense of certain members of the
Muscovy company, he published, under the title of The Arte of
Navigation, a translation of Martin Cortes's Breve compendio de
la Sphera y de la arte de navigar, printed at Seville in 1556.
He likewise busied himself with gathering together the records
of the Muscovy voyages, which formed so valuable a part of the
subsequent collection of Hakluyt.
With the writings of Richard Eden, we reach the great age
of maritime discovery, though still the stream of literature is
small and intermittent. Two years before he published or wrote,
Sir Hugh Willoughby, with the object of reaching Cathay, had
sailed, in 1553, upon that voyage to the north-east in which he
perished. Hakluyt has preserved the records of that great
effort, and he presents to us the striking picture of Sebastian
Cabot, as ‘governour of the mysterie and companie of the Marchants
adventurers,' laying down his wise ordinances and instructions
for the intended voyage. The captain-general, the pilot-major
(who was Richard Chancellor), the masters, merchants and other
officers were to be
so knit and accorded in unitie, love, conformitie, and obedience in everie degree
on all sides, that no dissention, variance or contention may rise or spring
betwixt them and the mariners of this companie to the damage or hindrance
of the royage.


## p. 72 (#94) ##############################################

72
The Literature of the Sea
Regulations were laid down for the discipline and conduct of the
fleet, and, in relation to the records of adventure, merchants and
other skilful persons were to put into writing daily their ob-
servations of navigation, of day and night, lands, tides, elements,
altitude of the sun, course of the moon and stars and other matters,
and these were afterwards to be collated, discussed and placed
upon record. Again, it was ordered that the liveries in apparel
given to the mariners were to be kept by the merchants and not
to be worn except by order of the captain when he should see
cause to muster or show his men in good array, for the adornment
and honour of the voyage, and then they were again to be de-
livered to the keeping of the merchants.
Willoughby perished, but Clement Adams wrote in Latin an
account of the navigation, which was conducted by Richard
Chancellor, and Hakluyt has given a translation. Amongst other
things he tells how Henry Sidney came down to the ships and
eloquently addressed the masters before they departed from the
Thames. He contrasted the hard life of the seaman, and its
dangers and uncertainties with the quiet life at home. He spoke
of the duty of keeping unruly mariners in good order and obedi-
ence, and concluded by saying,
9
With how many cares shall he trouble and vex himself? with how many
troubles shall he break himself? and how many disquietings shall he be
forced to sustain? We shall keep on our coasts and country; he shall seek
strange and unknown regions.
1
>
We now see the spirit of enterprise thoroughly aroused.
English seamen were not only seeking to reach Cathay and the
Spice islands by the north-east or the north-west, but were re-
solved to make an end of the barriers that were set up by
Portuguese and Spanish monopolies and partitions. William
Hawkins had broken with the old trade routes in his three
voyages to Brazil and the coast of Guinea in the time of Henry
VIII, and the successive voyages of his son, the celebrated Sir
John Hawkins, in 1562, 1564 and 1567, made a great mark upon
the history of the time and practically led, together with the actions
of Drake, to the breach with Spain. Of his third voyage, Hawkins
himself wrote an account, published in the year of his return,
entitled A True Declaration of the Troublesome voyage of Mr.
John Hawkins to the parts of Guinea and the West Indies in
the years of our Lord 1567 and 1568. It is a vigorous and direct
narrative of experiences, full of shrewd observations, and with
1


## p. 73 (#95) ##############################################

Sir Humphrey Gilbert
73
6
à notable reflective quality. “If all the miseries and troublesome
affaires of this sorrowfull voyage should be perfectly and thoroughly
written,' says the author, 'there should neede a paynfull man with
his penne, and as great a time as hee had that wrote the lives
and deathes of the martirs. ' Other accounts were written by
Miles Philips, Job Hartop and David Ingram, all survivors of the
fight at San Juan de Ulloa, and their narratives have been printed
by Hakluyt. For the record of the great navigations of Drake
in 1570 and 1572 and his wonderful voyage of circumnavigation
in 1577, we have to consult mostly the collection of Hakluyt and
certain volumes published in the seventeenth century.
The project of passing by the north-west to Cathay and the
Spice islands had long inspired Sir Humphrey Gilbert. His
Discourse of a Discoverie for a new passage to Cataia was
issued in April 1576, in a black letter tract of great rarity,
written some seven years before. In a prefatory note, it is intro-
duced to the reader by George Gascoigne, a friend of the author,
who tells us that a worshipful knight, Sir Humphrey's brother,
was 'abashed at this enterprise, because he had no heir but
the author, and that to him the enterprise seemed 'unpossible
unto common capacities. The brother, therefore, misliked Sir
'
Humphrey's resolution, and sought to dissuade him, and it was
in order to overcome his objections that this Discourse was pre-
pared. Gascoigne, being on a visit to Gilbert at his dwelling at
Limehouse, had a sight of the Discourse. Being a short essay,
and Martin Frobisher (whom he calls ‘Fourboyser, a kinsman of
mine') having engaged in the same enterprise, it seemed to him
that it would be useful to make public the tract. He compared
it with the tables of Ortelius and sundry other cosmographical
maps and charts, and said it was approved by the learned Dr Dee,
whose house at Mortlake was the seat of astronomical and nautical
knowledge. In this remarkable letter, Gilbert tells his brother that
he might have charged him with an unsettled head if he had
taken in hand the discovery of Utopia, but Cataia was no country
of the imagination, and the passage thereto by sea on the north
side of Labrador had been mentioned and proved by the most
expert and best learned amongst modern geographers. To Gilbert,
the continent of America was an island representing the Atlantis
of Plato and of other writers of antiquity. If Atlantis were an
island, the cataclysm in which it had been partly overwhelmed,
would, said Gilbert, make more practicable the navigation of its
northern coasts. He was confirmed in his opinion by Gemma


## p. 74 (#96) ##############################################

74
The Literature of the Sea
Frisius, Münster, Regiomontanus, Peter Martyr, Ortelius and
other modern geographers, as well as by the experience of cer-
tain navigators, including Othere in king Alfred's time and others
more recent.
Sir Humphrey Gilbert's tract remains amongst the most
notable literary contributions to the subject of exploration which
preceded the publication of the monumental work of Hakluyt.
At the conclusion of his discourse, he writes: 'He is not worthy
to live at all who, for fear of danger or death, shunneth his
country's service or his own honour, since death is inevitable
and the fame of virtue immortal. ' This discourse has the true
ring of a scholarly and patriotic Englishman, and there is much
freshness in its persuasive earnestness.
This great Englishman made his first voyage of discovery to
North America, with his half-brother, Sir Walter Ralegh, in his
company, in 1578. Hakluyt has preserved a narrative of Gilbert's
last enterprise, in 1583, in which he perished ; and there are few
more striking pictures in English narrative literature than that
of the old seaman, on the September afternoon upon which his
vessel, the 'Squirrel,' was overwhelmed, sitting abaft on his quarter-
deck with a book in his hand, hailing the men in the 'Golden
Hind,' which was following in the wake, whenever she came within
hailing distance, with the old seaman's phrase, uttered, says the
narrator, with signs of joy, “We are as near to heaven by sea
as by land. These were the last words of this good English-
man before he went down. A speech, says the narrator, 'well
beseeming a soldier resolute in Jesus Christ, as I can testify
he was. '
Meanwhile, the valiant Martin Frobisher had also been battling
with the icy approaches to the north-west, in 1576 and 1577; and,
in the following year captain George Best, Frobisher's trusted
friend, printed in black letter A true discourse of the late voyages
for the finding of a passage to Cathaya by the north-weast,
under the conduct of Martin Frobisher, Generall. Hakluyt has
collected narratives of all these voyages, but none are so lively
and vigorous as those which captain Best has given us in his
volume. What could be more direct and forcible than a letter
which Frobisher wrote in August 1577 to certain Englishmen
who were held captive by truculent natives, and whom he was
resolved to set free?
In the name of God, in whom we all believe, who, I trust, hath preserved
your bodies and souls amongst these infidels, I commend me unto you. I will


## p. 75 (#97) ##############################################

Martin Frobisher
75
be glad to seek by all means you can devise for your deliverance either with
force or with any commodities within my ships, which I will not spare for your
sakes, or anything else I can do for you.
After telling them that he has some natives on board whom he
would exchange, he proceeds,
Moreover you may declare unto them that if they deliver you not I will
not leave a man alive in their country. And thus, if one of you can come to
speak with me, they shall have either the man woman or child in pawn for
you, and thus unto God, whom I trust you do serve, in haste I leave you,
and to Him we will daily pray for you . . . Yours to the uttermost of my
power, Martin Frobisher.
An appetite for further knowledge now existed throughout the
land, and eager enquirers were demanding information as to the
voyages of the navigators and the riches of the new-found lands.
In 1577, a new edition of Eden's Decades of the Newe Worlde
appeared under the title of The History of Travayle in the West
and East Indies, and other countreys lying either way towards
the fruitfull and ryche Moluccaes. . . with a discourse of the North-
west Passage.
It was augmented and finished by Richard Willes,
who says that he was moved to place in an orderly manner what
Eden had 'confusely gyven out. ' He omitted some things which he
thought superfluous, and added to the three decades of Peter
Martyr, and to the fourth, which is given under another title, four
others, besides including many additional accounts of voyages
relating to Japan and the Guinea coast, Muscovy voyages and
travels, the exploits of Magellan and the explorations of Sebastian
Cabot. The most interesting of his additions is his argument
regarding the projected passage by the north-west. First, he gives
the arguments advanced against the project, and then attempts to
show the reasonableness of it. "M. Frobisher's prosperous voyage
and happy returne wyl absolutely decide these controversies. '
Eden and Willes were the precursors of Hakluyt, and lived in
a time when many seamen were leaving our ports to penetrate
the mysteries of the unknown world. Hakluyt's first book,
a voyage of discovery to America, was published in 1582, and
he issued a new edition of Peter Martyr's De Orbe Novo in
1587. He was preparing himself then for his great work. The
imperial imagination was stirred, and the importance of colonising
and developing the new-found lands was in all men's minds.
Ralegh received his charter of colonisation in 1584, and three
expeditions were despatched to the new colony to which he gave
the name of Virginia. In the introduction to the second book
>


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76
The Literature of the Sea
of The Faerie Queene, Spenser bids the man who does not know
'where is that happy land of Faery,' in which he has drawn his
immortal allegory, to see how little of the world he is acquainted
with.
But let that man with better sence advize,
That of the world least part to us is red;
And daily how through hardy enterprize
Many great Regions are discovered,
Which to late age were never mentioned.
Who ever heard of th’ Indian Peru ?
Or who in venturous vessell measured
The Amazon huge river, now found trew?
Or fruitfullest Virginia who did ever vew ?
Thus did the spirit of discovery make its influence felt in
·literature. What had been achieved was being recorded or made
known by rumour and report, and the bold work of navigators
made a profound impression upon thinking men at home, who, by
speech and pen, impelled them to new conquests in the unknown.
In the record of these achievements, no name stands higher than
that of John Davys, the famous voyager, beloved by his comrades,
who made three Arctic voyages and gave his name to Davis strait.
All these expeditions of Davys are related in the pages of Hakluyt's
Principall Navigations. The narratives of the first and third
voyages were written by John James, and of the second by Davys
himself, the detached voyage of the 'Sunshine' being narrated by
Henry Morgan, the purser. Davys had, of course, kept logs during
all these voyages, but the log of his third voyage is the only one that
has been preserved. Davys was also the author of The Seaman's
Secrets, published in 1594, and several times reprinted. It is
a valuable treatise on navigation, devoted to 'the three kinds of
sayling, horizontall, paradoxall, and sayling upon a great circle,'
and including a tide table and a ‘regiment' for finding the declina-
tions of the sun. Davys's Arctic voyages were all made with the
object of discovering the north-west passage, in the navigability
of which he was a firm believer, and his name, with those of
Gilbert and Frobisher, will ever be associated with the early
efforts to penetrate the icy barrier and discover a direct route to
Cathay and the Spice islands. His arguments in favour of it will
be found in his volume, The Worlde's Hydrographical Description,
a black letter treatise, published in London in 1595, wherein he
sought to show that the earth was habitable in all its zones, and
navigable in all its seas. In his fervid imagination, difficulties
disappeared, and he draws a glowing picture of the advantages
which would accrue to England from the discovery of a passage by


## p. 77 (#99) ##############################################

Sir Richard Hawkins
77
the north-west. He sets forth the arguments against the passage,
and then, with cumulative force, endeavours to prove them un-
tenable, and he quotes Isaiah from memory (lxv, 6, 'They seeke me
that hitherto have not asked for me, they find me that hitherto
have not sought me').
Another remarkable contribution to the literature of maritime
discovery is the description of his adventures by Sir Richard
Hawkins, only son of Sir John Hawkins, a storehouse of informa-
tion of all kinds concerning the lives and ideas of the early navi-
gators. It is entitled The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins,
Knight, in his voiage into the South Sea; anno Domini, 1593
(printed 1622). In this volume, Hawkins shows strong descriptive
power, imagination and skill, besides natural sagacity and a just
judgment of affairs. He enforces the need of experience for the
successful conduct of enterprise at sea, adding and I am of
opinion that the want of experience is much more tolerable in
a general on land than in a governor by sea. ' The ship in which
. '
he sailed was built in the Thames in 1588, and he tells us that his
mother, craving the naming of the ship, called her the 'Repentance. '
He expostulated with her for giving the vessel that “uncouth name,'
but never could have any satisfaction, save that 'repentance
was the safest ship we could sail in to purchase the haven of
heaven. '
In the halls of merchant companies, in the parlours of enter-
prising traders and in the chambers of students, problems of
the new world, and the means of reaching its treasures, were
being discussed. The genius of the nation for colonisation was
now aroused, and new lands were to be developed by men of
English blood. Seamen had begun to speak in literature, and
the thoughts and language of the sea, by tongue and writing, were
being grafted into the conceptions and the language of men who
never knew the salt breath of the ocean. Lyly has a mariner
strongly emphasised in his Galathea, 1592; Lodge, himself a
sailor, wrote his Rosalynde, 1590, ‘in the ocean, where every line
was wet with a surge, and every human passion counterchecked
with a storm'; his Margarite of America, 1596, was begun in the
strait of Magellan, on board ship, where I had rather will to get
my dinner than win my fame. ' The new spirit in literature is
seen in the poems of Spenser and it had a profound influence upon
Bacon. Above all, it is reflected in the writings of Shakespeare;
the sea sings in his music, and the anger of its storms thunders
in the rush of his invective; the magic and romance of discovery


## p. 78 (#100) #############################################

78
The Literature of the Sea
1
and strange tales of the navigators are reflected in the witchery of
his language. Ralegh wrote of the ‘Ewaipanoma race,' who had
eyes in their shoulders, and mouths in the middle of their
bowels, and it is with such marvels that Othello beguiles the
ear of Desdemona, who would 'seriously incline' to his moving
story of wonders,
And of the Cannibals that each other eat,
The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads
Do grow beneath their shoulders.
Though he rarely deals with the sea directly, Shakespeare never
uses nautical language except correctly and aptly. His seamen
speak as with the voice of the sea, his allusions all have the
knowledge of the sea. In Twelfth Night (III, 2) Maria says of
Malvolio that 'he doth smile his face into more lines than are in
the new map with the augmentation of the Indies. ' This was the
map published with Hakluyts Voyages, bearing the marks of
Davys's hand, showing the geographical knowledge of the time,
his discoveries in the north-west, and those of Magellan, Drake,
Sarmiento and Cavendish in the south ; the imaginary strait of
Anian between Asia and America disappears, and, in its place, is
the Pacific, as traversed by the Spanish captain, Francisco de Gali,
whose narrative was translated into Dutch by Linschoten, and then
into English under the title of Discourse of the East and West
Indies, 1598. In The Tempest, Shakespeare speaks of the 'still
vexed Bermoothes,' doubtless with reference to the sufferings and
shipwrecks of explorers, and, perhaps, particularly to the ex-
pedition of Sir George Somers, which was driven on the coast
of the then unknown Bermudas in 1609. But to Shakespeare, as
to his predecessors, the sea still remained rather a barrier than
a pathway; it was the ‘moat defensive to a house,' of which John
of Gaunt speaks in Richard II, 'against the envy of less happier
lands. '
Many illustrations might be given of Shakespeare's knowledge
of the sea and seafarers. Was it a mere coincidence that Ancient
Pistol, hauled off to the Fleet with Falstaff in the last scene of
Henry IV, part II, uses a phrase which is employed in The
Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins, referred to above, existing
in manuscript, we presume, when Shakespeare wrote the play?
Or, rather, were not Shakespeare and Hawkins quoting from a
common original in the speech of the people? Si fortuna me
tormenta spero me contenta, says the Ancient. When Hawkins
loses his pinnace at Plymouth he, also, exclaims, Si fortuna me
4
*


## p. 79 (#101) #############################################

Richard Hakluyt
79
tormenta, esperança me contenta. In The Comedy of Errors,
old Aegeon of Syracuse, recounting his woes in the storm, says,
The seas wax'd calm, and we discovered
Two ships from far making amain to us.
To 'make amain' or 'wave amain' was the signal of surrender
by striking sail or flag (amener le pavillon). Sir Richard Hawkins,
off Ushant, sights a great hulk, and his men, eager to make a
Spanish prize, 'without speaking to her wished that the gunner
might shoot at her to cause her to amain'—a bad custom, says
Hawkins, 'to gun at all whatsoever they discover. ' The Tempest
has many nautical allusions; in Romeo and Juliet it is 'to the
high top-gallant of my joy' that Romeo climbs by 'a tackled
stair'; in As You Like It, we find the figure, 'Dry as the remainder
biscuit after a voyage'; in The Merchant of Venice there is much
of the ventures of the traders, and thus says Solanio, if he had
such ventures,
I should be still
Plucking the grass to know where sits the wind;
Peering in maps for ports and piers and roads.
It is to Richard Hakluyt that we are indebted for our knowledge
of many matters that have been alluded to above. Shakespeare
undoubtedly studied his pages. Scattered treatises and manuscript
descriptions alone existed when Hakluyt set to work. He had
long been amassing material, and his writings, as we have men-
tioned, began to appear in 1582, while the first edition of the
Principall Navigations was published in 1589. The latter is the
first great body of information we possess relating to the voyages
of the sixteenth century. Purchas and others followed in his
steps, and carried on the task, but the nation and its literature
owe a debt to Hakluyt which is imperfectly recognised even now.
His whole life was given up, with a singleness of purpose that has
rarely been matched, to the literature of navigation and discovery.
When he undertook his labours he set himself an arduous task.
Proceeding to France as chaplain to Sir Edward Stafford, am-
bassador to the French court, in 1583, he learned much of foreign
discoveries and enterprises at sea, but, in Paris, he found the
English noted of all others for their sluggish security. Eden
had been but an interpreter of what others had done; and it
was because Hakluyt heard much obloquy of our nation, and
because few or none were able to make reply, that, with the object
of 'stopping the mouths of our reproachers' he determined
forthwith to undertake the work, which others, he said, owing to


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80
The Literature of the Sea
the heavy labour involved, and the small profit that would result,
had rejected. One cause of the state of things which Hakluyt
deplored must not be overlooked. It was that English voyages
and expeditions had been undertaken mainly with a commercial
purpose, and with the object of gain, and that merchants who
invested their capital in these enterprises were not always anxious
that the results of their discoveries should be made known for the
advantage of others. The gild of the merchant adventurers did
much to extend the range of discovery, and gave a fresh impulse to
seamanship and navigation, particularly in the east, but it did not
promote the general knowledge of those operations which were
its especial privilege, and nowhere can we discern any direct
encouragement to the publication of the records of maritime
discovery.
All honour, therefore, is due to Richard Hakluyt for his life-
long devotion to the subject he made his own. His writings
are informed with the qualities of his enthusiasm, and he has
brought together an immense mass of original material, without
which our knowledge would have been restricted and our under-
standing of the maritime events of his time uncertain. He has
himself told us, in the dedication to Sir Francis Walsingham
of the first edition of his Principall Navigations, how he
was attracted to the subject which afterwards engrossed his
attention until his death. He was born about the year 1553,
in London, as is conjectured, but belonged to a family long
seated at Yatton, in Herefordshire. He was one of the queen's
scholars at Westminster school, that ‘fruitful nursery,' as he
describes it, and it was his fortune, he tells us, to visit the
chamber of his cousin, Richard Hakluyt, a gentleman of the
Middle Temple, who had greatly interested himself in maritime
discovery and the science of navigation, in relation to the ventures
and expeditions of the Muscovy and Levant merchants. The
writings of Peter Martyr and Pigafetta, the translations of Eden
and the works of the great cosmographers had, doubtless, been his
study. The Westminster boy found lying open upon a board in
his cousin's room certain books of cosmography and a universal
map. In these, he displayed some curiosity, whereupon his kinsman
began to instruct his ignorance by explaining to him the divisions
of the earth according to the old account and the new learning.
With a wand, Richard Hakluyt pointed out to the youth all the
known seas, gulfs, bays, straits, capes, rivers, empires, kingdoms,
dukedoms and territories. He spoke also of their commodities


## p. 81 (#103) #############################################

Richard Hakluyt
81
and their particular wants, which, by the benefits of traffic and the
intercourse of merchants, were plentifully supplied. Then he
touched the boy's imagination by taking down the Bible, and,
turning to the 107th Psalm, directed him to read in the 23rd and
24th verses that 'they which go downe to the sea in ships and
occupy the great waters, they see the works of the Lord, and his
wonders in the deep. ' These words of the psalmist, together
with his cousin's discourse, were, says Hakluyt, things of high and
rare delight to his young nature, and made upon him so deep an
impression that he resolved that if ever he were preferred to the
university, where he might have a more convenient place and
better time for such studies, he would, by God's assistance,
prosecute the knowledge of this kind of literature, the doors
whereof, he says, after a sort, were so happily opened before him.
He was elected, in 1570, to Christ Church, Oxford, where he
did not forget the resolution he had made, and fell to the course
he had intended; so that by degrees he read whatever he could
find of printed voyages in all languages. He lectured, but where
is not definitely known, upon subjects relating to navigation, and
became familiar, by reading, with the personalities of sea captains,
and the enterprises of great merchants. He was incessantly
employed in the examination of collections, and transcription of
accounts of voyages and travels, and of all things bearing on the
subject, and, in his later years, he was engrossed in this work, and
in correspondence with all who could impart information.
His first published work was Divers Voyages touching the
Discoverie of America & the Islands adjacent unto the same,
issued in 1582, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney. This book,
which is of extreme rarity, but has been republished by the
Hakluyt society, 1850, had the direct and practical object of
increasing the knowledge of navigation, and spreading abroad the
fast growing impulse towards the colonising of newly discovered
lands. In Paris, as chaplain to the ambassador, Hakluyt discovered
a manuscript account of Florida, which was published at his ex-
pense in a French edition at Paris, in 1586, dedicated to Sir Walter
Ralegh as the discoverer of Virginia. This volume was afterwards
published in an English version, in London, in 1587, under the
title A Notable Historie containing foure voyages made by cer-
tayne French Captains unto Florida, the object being to promote
the colonisation of Virginia. In 1587, Hakluyt published in Paris
a revised edition of Peter Martyr of Anghiera's De Orbe Novo,
which, also, was dedicated to Ralegh, and was intended further to
6
E. L. IV.
CH. IV.


## p. 82 (#104) #############################################

82 The Literature of the Sea
1
extend the knowledge of discovery, seamanship and nautical
astronomy among English mariners. With the age of Columbus
and his successors, the necessity of astronomical study had been
realised, and improved methods of navigation grew with the thirst
for maritime enterprise. This knowledge came originally from the
continent, in its scientific form, and Johann Müller of Königsberg,
known as Regiomontanus, compiled the Ephemerides, from 1475 to
1506, which were used by Columbus and da Gama, while Martin
Behaim, of Nürnberg, invented an improved application of the
astrolabe to navigation, and constructed the earliest globe now
extant. Spanish students continued to work upon the ex-
position of these teachers for the next two hundred years. The
best English work upon the subject was William Bourne's Regiment
of the Sea, 1573. Hakluyt's edition of Peter Martyr, subsequently
translated into English at his suggestion by Michael Lok, was an
important addition to scientific knowledge, and was followed, in
1594, by The Seaman's Secrets of John Davys, to which reference
has already been made. Hakluyt had been profoundly interested in
the scientific aspect of navigation, and in 'the means of bringing
up skilful seamen and mariners in this realm,' and had laid before
Charles Howard, earl of Effingham, lord high admiral, in the
dedication of the second edition of the Principall Navigations,
the importance of establishing a lectureship in navigation for
seamen in London, having in view the many noble ships that
had been lost, the many worthy persons 'drenched in the sea,'
and how the realm had been impoverished by loss of great
ordnance and other rich commodities through the ignorance of
$
seamen.
*
We have been led to speak of this aspect of Hakluyt’s literary
work and his practical purposes by his publication of the revised
edition of Peter Martyr's book at Paris in 1587. During many
years previous to this date, he had been amassing materials for
his great work, The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Dis-
coveries of the English Nation, made by sea or over land to the
most remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth at any
time within the compasse of these 1500 yeeres, of which the first
edition appeared in one volume folio published by George Bishop
and Ralph Newbery in 1589. It was dedicated to Sir Francis
Walsingham, while the second edition, containing the navigations
within the compasse of these 1600 yeeres, in three volumes, dated
1598, 1599 and 1600, was dedicated, the first volume to Charles
Howard, earl of Nottingham, and the others to Sir Robert Cecil,


## p. 83 (#105) #############################################

83
The Principall Navigations
'whose earnest desires to do him (Hakluyt) good, lately broke out
into most bountiful and acceptable effects. '
It has already been shown that Hakluyt was a pioneer
in the literature of English maritime discovery. He remarks,
in an epistle dedicatory to an English translation of Galvano's
Discoveries of the World, that, if any man should marvel that, in
these discoveries, for the space of almost 4000 years, the British
nation was scarcely four times mentioned, he was to understand
that, when Galvano completed his task about the year 1556, “there
was little extant of men's travailes,' and that, for aught he,
Hakluyt, could see, no great matter would have come to light if
he had not undertaken the 'heavy burden. In the dedication
of the first edition of his great book, he speaks of it as a burden,
because these works lay so dispersed, scattered and 'hidden in
several hucksters' hands' that he wondered at himself to see how
he was able to endure the delays, the curiosity and the backward-
ness of many from whom he was to receive his originals. Again,
in the dedication of the first volume of the second edition to the
lord high admiral, he says that ‘after great charges and infinite
care, after many watchings, toils and travels and wearying out of
my weake bodie,' he had at length collected the materials for
his volumes, and had
brought to light many rare and worthy monuments which long have lien
miserably scattered in mustie corners, and retchlessly hidden in mistie
darknesse, and were very like for the greatest part to have been buried in
perpetuall oblivion.
There is surely a note of disappointment where he says, in another
place in the dedication of the first volume of the second edition to
the lord high admiral:
For the bringing of which into this homely and rough-hewen shape which
here thou seest; what restlesse nights, what painefull dayes, what heat, what
cold I have endured; how many long, and chargeable journeys I have
travailed; how many famous libraries have I searched into; what varietie
of ancient and moderne writers I have perused; what a number of old
records, patents, privileges, letters, etc. , I have redeemed from obscuritie
and perishing; into how many manifold acquaintance I have entered, what
expences I have not spared; and yet what faire opportunities of private
gaine, preferment, and ease I have neglected, albeit thyself canst hardly
imagine, yet I by daily experience do finde and feele and some of my entire
friends can sufficiently testifie.
The gratitude he expresses to Cecil in the later introductions
encourages the belief that his plaint did not go unheard. Though
Hakluyt had to deplore the scarcity of his materials, and to labour
under the multitude of his enquiries and the magnitude of his
6-2


## p. 84 (#106) #############################################

84
The Literature of the Sea
task, he was sustained until the end and spurred to boundless
enthusiasm by the subject which he had made his own. He was
full of pride in the deeds of Englishmen in former ages, but de-
clared that, in Elizabeth's time, they had excelled all the nations
and people of the earth. Their half-concealed achievements were
at last embodied in his own pages. Which of English kings, he said,
before her Majesty, had seen their banners in the Caspian sea ?
which of them had ever dealt with the emperor of Persia, obtaining
large privileges for merchants? whoever saw, “before this regiment,
an English Ligier in the stately porch of the Grand Signor at
Constantinople ? ' Who, he asks, had ever found English consuls
and agents before at Tripolis in Syria, at Aleppo, at Babylon and
at Balsara, and, what was more, who had ever heard of Englishmen
at Goa before that time?
1
What English shippes did heretofore ever anker in the mighty river of
Plate ? passe and repasse the impassable (in former opinion) straight of
Magellan, range along the coast of Chili, Peru, and all the backside of Nova
Hispania, further than any Christian ever passed, traverse the mighty bredth
of the South Seas, land upon the Luzones in despight of the enemy, enter into
alliance, amity, and traffike with the princes of the Molluccas and the Isle
of Java, double the famous Cape of Bona Speranza, arrive at the Isle of
Santa Helena, and last of al returne home most richly laden with the
commodities of China, as the subjects of this now flourishing monarchy
have done ?
Hakluyt ransacked chroniclers for such records of voyages
as he could find. He investigated the papers of the merchant
companies and, as he tells us, he travelled far in order to interview.
travellers and examine records of exploration. He gives the state
of the ships of the Cinque Ports from Lambarde's Perambulation
of Kent. He also included that remarkable essay The Libel
of English Policy! The voyages to the north-east are mostly
taken from the documents of the Muscovy company and include
the navigations of Willoughby, Chancellor, Stephen Burrough
and others. The volumes also include some records of the naval
fighting of the time, including The Miraculous Victory atchieved
by the English flete under the discreet and happy conduct of the
right honourable, right prudent and valiant Lord, the lord Charles
Howard, lord high admiral of England. The voyages to the
south and south-east are taken largely from records of the Levant
traders, and include the explorations of Challoner and Lok,
Jenkinson, John Foxe and others. Some papers relating to these
voyages appear to have been taken from the records of Hakluyt's
1 Sce vol. 11 of the present work, pp. 423 f.


## p. 85 (#107) #############################################

Hakluyt's Achievement
85
uncle, Richard Hakluyt, who was interested in these ventures.
There are James Lancaster's expedition to the Cape of Good
Hope, Zanzibar and Malacca, and Drake's expedition to Cadiz. In
relation to the voyages to the north-west there are scanty accounts
of the expeditions of the Cabots, and fine descriptive narratives
of the voyages of Hawkins. These, and the expeditions of Gilbert
and Frobisher, have already been alluded to. The expeditions of
Philip Amada and Arthur Barlow, and various accounts of the
enterprises of Drake, Ralegh and others also hold a notable place
in the volumes.
There is no purpose in cataloguing the contents of Hakluyt's
volumes here, nor in offering more than a general comment upon
them. The object has been to indicate their place and significance
in national literature and to describe their origin and character.
Hakluyt was no doubt the editor as well as the collector of these
records. Amid all their variety and diversity of qualities and
merits, it is possible to discern a certain unity and the influence
of an individuality. Much excellent prose, strong and vigorous
in character, often dignified and persuasive, is to be found in
the book. Lucid and careful description, often lighted up by
imagination and literary power, distinguishes many of these
relations of voyages. They constitute a body of narrative litera-
ture which is of the highest value for an understanding of the
spirit and tendency of the time, and, together with the later
collection of Purchas, who brought together some things which
had escaped the vigilance of Hakluyt, they are the basis of our
knowledge of the part which Englishmen played in enlarging
the boundaries of the known world in the great age of exploration
and discovery.


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CHAPTER V
SEAFARING AND TRAVEL
THE GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL TEXT BOOKS AND
GEOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE
THE preceding chapter has shown how the great race of the
Tudor seamen left their mark on the literature of the country
of their birth. In a survey of the written record of the seafaring
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we are necessarily
attracted more to its subject than to its manner. We cannot judge
it by such standards as are applied to the poetry, the drama, or
the historical literature of the time. Ralegh and Lodge, as men
of literary study and training, stand almost alone among navi-
gators. Most of their contemporaries and successors were men
who fought the tempest and the enemy, and knew little of the
wielding of the pen. Rarely did they sit down to write anything
more ambitious than a letter or a rough journal without making
profuse apologies for their lack of literary experience. They were
men, nevertheless, who dreamed dreams and saw visions : not always,
indeed, dreams like those of Columbus, who thought that to add a
realm to Christendom was object and reward enough, but dreams
more often like those of the later Spaniards, who laid heavy
burdens on the backs of treasure mules and filled caravels with
silver. Explorers went in quest of the gold and spicery of the
mysterious lands of Zipangu and Cathay, and the commodities' of
the new world fell into their hands in the search.
They were confronted from the beginning with the monopolies
of Portugal and Spain. The Spaniards were firmly seated in
central America and Peru. Vasco da Gama and his successors
had made their own the route by the cape of Boa Esperança to
the treasures beyond. Magellan had gone to the south-west, by
the strait that bears his name, and Drake had followed him; but
the Pacific coast of southern America had become the monopoly of
Spain. If Englishmen, also, were to have monopoly and sway,
that they might gather unimpeded the treasures of the unknown
and half-fabulous lands of the Pacific, they must penetrate by the
sea route of the north-west ; and Gilbert and a hundred other


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Poets on the Discoveries
87
r
seamen persuaded themselves and the merchants, by every argu-
ment to be found in heaven or earth, that through the icy passages
there was an open way to the west. The temper in which
navigators wrestled with the elements was exemplified by the
remark of Robert Thorne, the Bristol seaman, who said: “There
is no land unhabitable, no sea innavigable. ' Failure to pierce
icy barriers was the root of all the expansion and rivalry that
followed, both in the east and in the west. A hundred projects
for penetrating the great Pacific were in the air. The Dutch were
grasping at the spoil of the Portuguese, and, in England, men of
commerce became men of war, merchant and mariner alike being
resolute to snatch the sceptre of the sea from the weakening
grasp of Spain. Thus, as Drayton says:
A thousand kingdoms will we seek from far,
As many nations waste in civil war;
Where the dishevelled ghastly sea-nymph sings,
Our well-rigged ships shall stretch their swelling wings,
And drag their anchors through the sandy foam,
About the world in every clime to roam;
And there anchristened countries call our own
Where scarce the name of England hath been known.
Hakluyt is the recorder of these deeds in queen Elizabeth's day
-not of quite all of them, indeed, for he pays scanty heed to the
earlier exploits of Drake, and, in his preface of 1589, excuses himself
'to the favourable reader' for so doing. Perhaps he had in mind the
comments which a complete narration might have aroused abroad.
Navigators were men of action and not of words. Drake, on the
famous occasion when he took upon himself to preach in place
of Master Fletcher, the chaplain—'Francis Fletcher, the falsest
knave that liveth’-declared that he was a very bad orator, ‘for
my bringing up hath not been in learning. ' Bacon, in his con-
siderations Touching the War with Spain, explains the under-
lying theory and object of their actions :
For money, no doubt it is the principal part of the greatness of Spain;
for by that they maintain their veteran army; and Spain is the only state of
Europe which is a money grower. But in this part, of all others, is most to
be considered the ticklish and brittle state of the greatness of Spain. Their
greatness consisteth in their treasure, their treasure in the Indies, and their
Indies (if it be well weighed) are indeed but an accession to such as are
masters of the sea. So as this axle-tree, whereupon their greatness turneth,
is soon cut in two by any that shall be stronger than they by sea.
The strategical theories of Bacon, translated into action by
navigators and recorded by Hakluyt, filling many adventurers with
a new spirit of conquest and achievement in the years that followed,


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88
Seafaring and Travel
could not fail to move the imagination of poets and dramatists.
We have seen how Spenser set forth the argument and inward
character of these voyages; how they had their influence upon
Shakespeare, and, we might have added, upon Marlowe and other
dramatists. William Warner, in Albion's England (1602), sings of
Willoughby, Chancellor, Jenkinson, Jackman and Pet, of Hawkins,
Drake, Gilbert, Frobisher and others, advising resort to the recent
pages of Principall Navigations.
Samuel Daniel, in his Musophilus, or a General Defence of Learn-
ing (1603), extols the new spirit in a colloquy with Philocosmus :
Whenas our accent, equal to the best
Is able greater wonders to bring forth;
When all that ever hotter springs expresst,
Comes bettered by the patience of the North.
And who, in time, knows whither we may vent
The treasure of our tongue, to what strange shores
This gain of our best glory shall be sent,
T'enrich unknowing nations with our stores ?
What worlds in th' yet unformed Occident
May come refin'd with th' accents that are ours?
Or, who can tell for what great worke in hand
The greatness of our style is now ordain'd ?
Ralegh's discovery and proposed colonisation of Guiana' was
the subject of George Chapman’s De Guiana Carmen (1596).
Guiana-whose rich feet are mines of gold,
Whose forehead knocks against the roof of stars,
Stands on her tip-toes at fair England looking,
Kissing her hand, bowing her mighty breasts,
And every sign of all submission making
To be her sister, and the daughter both
Of our most sacred maid.
It was an age of universal curiosity, and Englishmen were
seeking a wider knowledge of the world. The bibliography will
show that a copious volume of literature, descriptive or otherwise,
relating to history, discovery and navigation, issued from the press
at this time. Among writers who contributed the fruit of much
solid research to the knowledge then possessed of foreign countries
and their history was Richard Knolles, whose General Historie of
the Turkes from the first beginning of that Nation to the rising
of the Othoman Familie was published in 1603, and long continued
to hold a high repute, by reason of the fact that it was written in
excellent prose and opened a new field to the English student.
A second edition appeared in 1610, in which year Knolles died;
and there were later editions in 1621, 1631 and 1638. Johnson
* See ante, chap. II, pp. 55, 56.


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Compilations
89
thought highly of Knolles's style ; and, though he found it some-
times vitiated by false wit, considered it 'pure, nervous, elevated
and clear. ' To Horace Walpole, Knolles was tiresome, but Southey
admired him, and Byron, writing shortly before his death at
Missolonghi, said,
Old Knolles was one of the first books that gave me pleasure when I was
a child; and I believe it had much influence on my future wishes to visit the
Levant, and gave perhaps the Oriental colouring which is observed in my
poetry.