No More Learning

5 E. Lear Journals of a Landscape Painter in Albania and
Illyria, View of Vodhena (the ancient Aegae or Edesaa), opp.
p. 37.
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? xxx PYDNA AND PELLA; GHALC'IDIGE
the south is the mighty mass of Olympus rising nearly
10,000 feet above the sea ; between Olympus and the
coast is the district of Pieria, with the frontier town
of Dium; to the north of Dium is Methone, and
between the two, but nearer to Methone, is Pydna,
the future seaport of Alexander I. Thirty miles to
the east, midway between Aegae and Therma, and
fifteen miles from the sea, rise amid the marshes the
low hills which mark the site of Pella, the future
capital of Archelaus, the metropolis of Philip and the
birth-place of Alexander the Great. To the right of
a line fifty miles long, stretching from Aegae to
Therma, is the general direction of the Lydias, and,
in the same line as the latter, the view extends
beyond the bay to the dimly visible coast of the
western portion of Chalcidice. Of the three penin-
sulas of Chalcidice, which project like a trident into
the northern Aegean, the nearest, Pallene, is joined
to the mainland by a narrow isthmus on which stands
a city of Poseidon, the Corinthian colony of Poteidaea.
A few miles to the NE. of this is Olynthus, near
the head of the bay of Torone. Beyond that bay is
the peninsula of Sithonia with its lofty and broken
mountains; and beyond a second bay the peninsula
of Acte rising in undulations from the site of the
canal of Xerxes until it forms a central ridge 4000
feet in height, and finally ends in the vast conical
peak of Athos, more than 6000 feet above the sea. '
Chalcidice, with its deep bays and long peninsulas,
resembles the south of the Peloponnesus, and is
in fact a second Hellas on a smaller scale in the
northern Aegean; hence its attractiveness to the
Hellenic colonists from Chalcis and Corinth. East
1 Tozer Geography of Greece pp. 200--6, Islands of the Aegean
p. 279.
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? ALEXANDER I xxxi
of Chalcidice is the bay which derives its name
from the Strymon. That Thracian river, shortly
after flowing through Lake Prasias, reaches a point
where, at the distance of only three miles from the
sea, it washes on three sides the commanding site of
the Athenian colony of Amphipolis. 1 Amphipolis is
ninety miles due east of Aegae; and about twelve
miles south of a line drawn from Aegae to Amphipolis
is Therma, fifty miles distant from both.
The three foremost kings of Macedonia before the
time of Philip were Alexander I, Perdiccas II and
Archelaus. The first of these, whose Alexander I,
personality is almost as attractive as M454 1W
that of his namesake, Alexander the Great, was,
at the time of the Persian invasion, compelled to
surrender to Xerxes. But he was thorough] y Hellenic
at heart, and gained thereby the distinctive title of
Alexander the Philhellene. 2 He it was who, in the
year 480, warned the Greeks against the peril of
occupying the pass of Tempe (Herod. vii 173).
Trusted by Greeks and Persians alike, he was sent in
the following year as a Persian envoy to Athens;
and, after the battle of Plataea, he openly declared
himself the enemy of Persia. When Mycenae was
destroyed by Argos in 468, most of the exiled
Mycenaeans found refuge with him. (Paus. vii 25).
He made good his right to be allowed to compete as
a Greek at the Olympic games, in which he ran a dead-
heat with the winner of the foot-race (Herod. v 22),
and he was also the theme of an encomium by Pindar. 3
1 Dnruy Htstoire ates Grecs iii 198, Vac des Tut'st
d'Amph'Lymlc's.
2 Schol. Thuc. i 57, Harp. s. v. , Dio Chrys. Or. 2 p. 25 M.
3 Fragm. 121 [86] 6M3th one? uu/Ae Aapfiamoibv | 1m? 0/10. le-
pndes 'Aplivra.
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? xxxii PERDIUOAS II
To his time belongs the widest expansion of the
Macedonian territory before the days of Philip.
Alexander I was ultimately succeeded by
Perdiccas II, who, after ousting his eldest brother
Perdiccaan, and dividing the dominion with his
sole ruler second brother, became sole ruler from
436'4135'c' 436 to 413. During the early part
of his reign he was on friendly terms with Athens ;
but, in 432, he openly espoused the cause of
Poteidaea, which had shaken off the Athenian yoke.
It was mainly at his instigation that in 424 the Spartan
commander, Brasidas, set out on his memorable
expedition to Macedonia and Thrace (Thuc. iv 79);
but, before the close of the following year, he
abandoned the Spartan alliance and concluded peace
with Athens. Thenceforward he supported one or
other of the belligerent parties according to the
promptings of his own interests at the moment.
In the course of his reign Athens and Macedonia
came to know one another as irreconcilable adver-
saries.
The internal condition of Macedonia is first re-
vealed to us by the expedition of Sitalces, king of
the Odrysian tribe of Thracians, in 429 B. C. The
full dominion of Perdiccas was then limited to the
lower provinces near the sea. As the Macedonians
had no navy, these provinces were constantly exposed
to the attacks of the Greeks, who were in possession
of a great part of the coast. There was little
internal commerce, for there were no regular roads.
The people lived mostly in open villages; fortified
places were rare; and there was scarcely any
organised military force. 1
' Thuc. ii 95-101, Thirlwall iii 165.
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? ARUHELA US I xxxiii
The foundations of Macedonia's future greatness
were laid by Archelaus I. He built fortresses,
developed the means of communica-- "menus [I
tion between distant portions of his 413--3993'0-
dominions, and equipped himself with an ample
supply of horses and arms (Thuc. ii 100). He was
also a patron of art and literature. His palace was
embellished with paintings by Zeuxis ; and his court
was attended by the famous musician, Timotheus,
and the celebrated poets, Choerilus, Agathon and
Euripides. 1
Archelaus, who had attained the throne by crime,
was assassinated in 399. After ten years of confusion,
the throne was filled by Amyntas II (389--370), a
representative of the old royal family, a great-grand-
son of Alexander I. His reign was disturbed by
Illyrian invasions, and it was not until Sparta had
broken the power of Olynthus (379) that he was
enabled to recover his own dominions. He continued
to his death in close alliance with Sparta; but he
also cultivated the friendship of Athens. He pro-
fessed to favour the claims of Athens to the possession
of Amphipolis, and he is said to have adopted as his
son the Athenian commander Iphicrates (Aeschin. 2
28, 32). Of his own sons, the eldest, Alexander
II, reigned for two years (370~368). In 368, when
Iphicrates was on the coast in command of a small
squadron, which had been sent to act against
Amphipolis, he was invited to an interview with the
widowed queen Eurydice, who placed her surviving
sons Perdiccas and Philip as suppliants beside him,
and thus moved him to turn his arms against a
pretender t0 the throne and to expel him from the
kingdom (ib. 28 f)- A contest which had arisen
1 Introd. to Eur. Bacchae pp. xxxv--vii.
c
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? xxxiv THE REIGN OF PHILIP, DOI'VN T0 351 13. 0.
between Alexander II and Ptolemy of Alorus had
been submitted to the arbitration of the Theban com-
mander, Pelopidas; and in 368 Philip, who was
then fifteen, was taken by Pelopidas as a hostage to
Thebes. There he remained for three years, and,
in the society of men like Pelopidas and Epami-
nondas, laid the foundation of his future military
success. Probably he also enjoyed a rhetorical
training; in after life his talent as a speaker was
acknowledged by Aeschines and even by Demosthenes
(ib. ? 41). It was possibly owing to a suggestion
of Plato's pupil, Euphraeus, that his elder brother
Perdiccas III, who succeeded Ptolemy as king in
365, allowed him to rule in person over part of the
Macedonian territory (Athen. 506 He there organ-
ised a small military force, thus putting into practice
the lessons he had learnt during his residence at
Thebes.
III The reign of Philip, down to 351 13. 0.
On the death of Perdiccas (359) Philip found
himself constrained to assume the crown. Of his
mum three half-brothers he put to death one ;
359-336 B-C' the other two, Menelaus and Arrhidaeus,
escaped to Olynthus.
'Philip was at this time twenty-three years of age,
of a noble figure and princely bearing, master of all that
skilfulness of conduct, all that versatility and knowledge
of the world which were only to be acquired in Greek
cities ; he spoke and wrote Greek fluently and with taste.
But he took care not to give offence by his foreign
culture, for he wished not to appear a stranger among
the Macedonians. He hunted and feasted with them . . . ;
he was the best swimmer and horseman, and in all
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? PHILIP'S CHARACTER xxxv
national exercises and social pleasures the most excellent
of comrades to the young nobility, whom he contrived to
sway, without allowing them to become aware of the real
cause of his superiority. He had many of the ways of a
barbaric prince, . . . he could be savage and intemperate,
. . . but he never lost sight of his higher aims. He was
resentful or merciful, courageous or cunning, obstinate or
ready with concessions, as circumstances required. He
exemplified that combination of royal dignity, natural
vigour and Hellenic culture, which was necessary if
Macedonia was at last to be made strong at home and
powerful abroad. 1
' There were three powers, upon the relations of whom
to Macedonia all ulterior successes depended. These were
Athens at the head of her Maritime league, commanding
the coast of the Thermaean Gulf; Amphipolis on the
Strymon; and Olynthus on the Thracian peninsula, the
mighty city enjoying the primacy among the Greek
towns of the surrounding district. If these three acted
in unison, nothing was to be accomplished; for then
Macedonia must remain an inland and a petty state,
in an oppressive condition of dependence upon foreign
powers. The one thing absolutely indispensable, there-
fore, was that the Greeks should not penetrate the designs
of Philip; they must be kept deceived and divided as
long as possible ; and by their mutual distrust one Greek
city must be made to promote Philip's scheme against
the other. ' 2
Philip's first act was to buy off the enmity of the
Thracians by suitable presents and promises. He
next reorganised his forces, encouraged his friends
and soldiers by spirited harangues, and contrived to
defer to a more convenient moment the threatening
1 Curtius History qf Greece Book vi 0. i vol. v 41 f ET.
(slightly altered).
ib. p. 46. On Amphipolis, ib. 47 f; on Olynthus, 272 f.
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? xxxvi ATHENS AND AMPHIPOLIS
attack of the Athenians. Athens had been espous-
ing the cause of a pretender to the throne, named
Argaeus ,- her purpose in the war which she had been
carrying on for some years was the possession of
Amphipolis. Philip professed his readiness to give
up this important place, withdrawing the Macedonian
garrison and leaving the town to its own citizens.
At Athens this would naturally be regarded as
equivalent to an actual cession. He also sent a
dispatch to Athens, announcing his readiness to
make an alliance with her, and to renew his heredit
ary friendship (Dem. 23 ? 121). After defeating
the supporters of Argaeus, he treated the few
Athenians whom he then captured with the most
considerate courtesy, sending them back to Athens
full of gratitude to himself, as the bearers of
conciliatory messages to their countrymen. In
concluding peace, Philip renounced all claim to
Amphipolis, acknowledging this town as rightfully
belonging to Athens. In so doing he was not really
abandoning any lawful possession of his own.
Amphipolis had never belonged to the kings of
Macedonia. It was only three or four years before
(363) that it had been entered by Macedonian
soldiers sent to aid the citizens to defend it from
Athens. The Athenians were content, being assured
by their self-esteem that the Amphipolitans them-
selves would never oppose their acknowledged
claims.
Philip next turncd to his enemies in the interior.
He marched up the Axius, and defeated the
Paeonians. He next attacked the Illyrians in
western Macedonia, and reduced to subjection all
the tribes east of Lake Lychnitis.
Meanwhile, the Athenians had been unsuccessfully
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? THE CHERSONESUS AND EUBOEA xxxvii
engaged in military operations in the Thracian
Chersonesus. Their commander Timotheus, after
contending with success against Olynthus and her
neighbours on the gulf of Therma, but with very
poor results against Amphipolis, had in 363 trans-
ferred his forces to the war against Cotys, king of
Thrace.
In the operations near the Ghersonesus and
before Amphipolis, he was succeeded by commanders
who failed in their object. In 359 Cotys was
assassinated; his successor was the youthful Cerso-
bleptes, who had the support of the well-known com-
mander of mercenaries, Charidemus ; the kingdom
was now divided between Cersobleptes, Amadocus
and Berisades ,' and the Chersonesus, including Sestos,
was restored to Athens (359).
It was probably in consequence of these operations
in the Chersonesus that, although Amphipolis was
evacuated by Philip in 359, nevertheless, for more
than a year, Athens made no attempt to regain it.
She was far more active in recovering her influence
in Euboea. Since the battle of Leuctra (371) that
island had passed into the power of Thebes. In
357 discontent broke out, and Chalcis and Eretria
sent urgent messages for aid from Athens. The
people were roused to enthusiasm by the stirring
appeal of Timotheus reported to us by Demosthenes,
who was doubtless present in the Assembly :--
'When the Thebans are in the island, are you still
debating what to do? Will you not cover the sea
with ships? Will you not start up at once and
march to the Peiraeus'l Will you not launch your
triremes 'l ' (8 ? 74). Demosthenes himself was one of
those who volunteered as trierarch, and within thirty
days the Thebans had found themselves. compelled
to evacuate the island. Thus, in 357, by the recovery
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? xxxviii THE SOCIAL WAR
of Euboea and the Chersonesus, Athens reached the
height of her success since her organisation of the
second maritime confederacy twenty years before
(end of 378). Her success was, however, soon im-
paired by the important events of the Social War
and the conquests of Philip in Thrace.
In 357 Chios, Cos, Rhodes and Byzantium
revolted from Athens. At Chios the Athenians
Thosmalwar' were repulsed, and Ohabrias, the victor
357'355 B-c- of Naxos, died the death of a hero on
the deck of his trireme. In the following year
Iphicrates, Timotheus and Chares were unsuccessful
in their operations in the Hellespont ; the first two
were accused by the third of deserting him at a critical
moment; Timotheus was sentenced to pay a heavy
fine (354), and within the next two years both of
the colleagues of Chares died. Chares himself had
meanwhile been so inadequately supported by Athens
that he found himself forced to take service under
Artabazus (Dem. 4 ? 24), a satrap in rebellion
against the Persian king, Artaxerxes III. The king
threatened to attack Athens; and the Social War
was promptly brought to an end. A peace was sworn
by which Athens recognised the complete inde-
pendence of the cities which had revolted from her
(355)
The Social War, inglorious in its results, had
seriously impoverished the Athenian treasury. In
the speech Against the Law of Lepttncs (354)
Demosthenes avowed that 'the State had no funds
of her own' (20 24), clothing his admission of her
poverty in the famous euphemism :--' In the days
of Pericles our State was rich both in land and in
money; whereas now, her prosperity is still in the
future' (efiropvjcu, ? 115). The war had also
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? ATHENS AND AMPHIPOLIS xxxix
weakened her power, and made her less able to with-
stand the aggressions of Philip.
Athens having failed to secure Amphipolis, Philip
took steps to resume his control over that city. He
began an active siege, bringing his military engines
to bear upon walls whose weak points were familiar
to some of his soldiers who had recently occupied
the place. The inhabitants found themselves forced
to apply to Athens. Their envoys Hierax and
Stratocles (1 g 8) urgently invited Athens to occupy
Amphipolis as its only chance of rescue from Mace-
donian dominion. Philip neutralised this appeal by
sending the Athenians a courteous letter, informing
them that he was besieging the town, recognising
once more that it was to them that it rightfully
belonged, and promising to restore it when he had
taken it (23 ? 116, [7] ? 27). The future destinies
of Greece turned in large measure on the way in
which Athens was to deal with these conflicting
messages.
The importance of the position of Amphipolis
was obvious. It commanded the passage of the
Strymon, it was the key to the gold-mines of Mount
Pangaeus, and it closed the eastward advance of
Macedonia (cp. Thuc. iv 108, 1). If once it could
be secured by Athens, she could easily retain it by
means of her maritime power in the northern Aegean.
But Athens did nothing. The peril which threatened
Amphipolis was in fact not displeasing to Athens,
but she failed to see that the interests of her unduti-
ful colony were now her own interests also. On the
other hand, she had made peace with Philip only a
year before, and felt indisposed-to mistrust him so
soon. The assurances of Philip were accepted, and
the envoys from Amphipolisdismissed with a refusal.
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? xl PHILIP'S CAPTURE 0F AMPHIPOLIS
Amphipolis held out as long as it could ; at length
a breach was made in the walls, and Philip, with
mm" H; the aid of a party of traitors in
taken 7347' the town, carried it by assault after a
brave resistance. Thenceforward Amphipolis became
one of the bulwarks of Macedonia until the conquest
of that kingdom by Rome.
The fall of Amphipolis alarmed Olynthus, and
the latter sent to negotiate a treaty with Athens.
But Philip's partisans procured the dismissal of the
Olynthian envoys by renewed assurances that he
remained the friend of Athens, and was still disposed
to cede Amphipolis as her rightful possession. They
even suggested that Philip had good reason for
resenting the fact that Athens was retaining the
ancient Macedonian township of Pydna. Accordingly,
negotiations were opened for the exchange of Pydna
against Amphipolis. But, as Pydna was known to be
opposed to the transfer, these treacherous negotiations
were kept a secret (note on 2 g 6 l. 58). The
Assembly, being informed that negotiations, neces-
sarily secret, were proceeding for the acquisition of
Amphipolis, was persuaded to repel the advances of
Olynthus and to continue to regard Philip as its
friend (2 6).
These secret negotiations, of which Athens had
good reason to be ashamed, ended in worse than
nothing. The Olynthians, irritated by their repulse
at Athens, accepted a treaty with Philip (late in
357). He purchased their friendship by immediately
ceding to them the district of Anthemus, lying
between Olynthus and Therma, and by promis-
ing to join them in an attack on the important
Athenian possession of Poteidaea (6 ? 20). Athens
being now distracted by the disasters of the Social
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? P Y DNA AND P0 TEIDAEA xli
\Var, towards the end of 357, Philip attacked Pydna,
which was betrayed by a party of traitors in
the town (I ? 5, 20 63). The siege pydnataken
lasted long enough for an appeal for aid lat? m357 3-C-
to be sent to Athens; but, if any aid was sent, it
arrived too late. Several Athenian citizens captured
at Pydna were sold into slavery, some of them being
afterwards ransomed out of the private resources of
Demosthenes (Plut. ii 851).
Philip next attacked Poteidaea, the key of the
peninsula of Pallene, a source of constant annoyance
to its northern neighbour Olynthus only a few miles
distant at the head of the bay of Torone. The
Olynthians readily aided in the siege (2 ? 14, 23
107 . Though the operations were _
Ee? otractiZd, and thiare was actually a body tafigrieiilian
of Athenians settled in the place, the 356 "'0'
Athenians were slow in sending succours, and their
help arrived too late (4 ? 35, 1 ? 9).
By the capture of Pydna and Poteidaea Philip
had deprived Athens of her hold on the gulf of
Therma ; where, of all the conquests of Timotheus,
her only remaining possession was the town of
Methone. Philip had conciliated the good-will of the
Olynthians, had strengthened his hold on Amphipolis,
and extended his dominion eastward of the Strymon
among the gold-mines of the Pangaean Mount. He
seized the Thracian shore facing the island of Thasos ;
in the interior, he founded a new city called Philippi,
and caused a new gold coin to be struck bearing a
name derived from his own. 1 The fresh source of
wealth now opened to him furnished means for
rewarding his agents in Hellas, and for meeting the
1 Horace Ep. H i 234 rettulit acceptos, regale nomisma,
philippos.
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? xlii SACRED WAR; CAPTURE 0F METHUNE
ever-increasing expense of his military force. In the
summer of 356, not long after the capture of Poteidaea,
Philip received at nearly the same time three
messengers with good news from three different
quarters, one of them telling him of the defeat of
the Illyrians by his general Parmenion ; another,
of the victory of his race-horse at the Olympic
games; and a third, of the birth of a son who was
afterwards renowned as Alexander the Great.
The Social \Var had not yet ended when a new
source of embarrassment arose in the Sacred War,
11,953,,"de which was destined to redound to
355-3465-? ~ the advantage of no other cause than
that of Macedonian aggression. Complaints were
brought before the Amphictyonic Council, first by
Thebes against Sparta for her seizure of the Cadmea
(383), and next by Thebes against the Phocians for
cultivating a portion of the sacred plain of Cirrha.
In punishment for the latter offence the Council
appropriated to Apollo the territory of Phocis. The
Phocians rose in arms under Philomelus, claimed the
control of the Delphic temple, and seized Delphi
itself. A league was formed against them by the
Thebans ; and, with a view to paying mercenaries to
confront the Thebans, Locrians, and Thessalians, part
of the sacred treasures of Delphi were appropriated
by the Phocians. Their leader, Philomelus, being
slain in battle (354), was succeeded by Onomarchus,
who advanced as far as Thermopylae and also
invaded Boeotia, but was repulsed by the Thebans.
In 353 we find Philip attacking Methone. News
of its peril reached Athens, but the expedition
new," taken sent to relieve it-arrived too late. Here,
53 B-u- again, some citizens of Athens were sold
as slaves, to be subsequently ransomed by Demo-
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? PHILIP OHE'OKED AT THERMOPYLAE xliii
sthenes. Having thus secured a seaport which
had never belonged to Macedonia, and was now the
last position held by Athens on the gulf of Therma,
Philip began to extend his power towards the pass
of Thermopylae.
It was the Aleuadae of Larissa who invited him
into Thessaly to aid them against Lycophron, the
despot of Pherae. Lycophron in turn sought help
from Onomarchus and the Phocians. The Phocian
commander defeated Philip in two battles ; but, after
an interval, Philip repaired his forces and returned
to Thessaly, gaining a complete victory over Onom-
archus, who was himself slain in the engagement
(352). He thus put an end to the power of the
Phocians north of Thermopylae, crushed the dynasty
of Pherae, conquered Pherae itself and its port of
Pagasae, and became master of all Thessaly.
He next invaded Thermopylae. But Athens,
which, as usual, had been just too late to aid
Pagasae (4 35), was at last really Themopylae
alarmed and made an unwonted effort, 352 "-
which was carried out with an exceptional prompti-
tude. A strong force arrived in good time, and
Philip withdrew from his proposed attack. In after
days Demosthenes, in combating the general remiss-
ness of his countrymen, often reminded them of this
unwonted act of energy which had been crowned
with complete success (4 17, 18 ? 32, 19 322).
In November 352 Athens received intelligence
that Philip, who had attacked Abdera and Maroneia
on his way towards the Chersonesus, 'Hpa-wv "'5 O;
was besieging 'Hpaiov Teixos. A vote bemgedmv- 2-
was immediately passed at Athens to raise ten
talents in money and to send out a fleet of forty
triremes manned with Athenian citizens (3 ? 4)-
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? xliv PHILIP IN THRA CE
But, before the vote was carried out, rumours
reached Athens that Philip had~fallen ill, and even
that he was actually dead. His military operations
in Thrace were for a time suspended. He attacked
the territory of Olynthus (4 ? 17, 1 ? 13),1 and
Athens contented herself with sending to Thrace a
feeble force under Charidemus--merely ten triremes
without soldiers on board and with only five talents
in money (3 5). ?
Though Philip had been kept out of southern
Greece, yet in Thessaly and to the north of Thermo-
pylae Macedonian ascendency was thenceforward
an indisputable fact. Philip began to inspire alarm
throughout the Hellenic world, and the results of
his generalship and his restless activity were every-
where felt. At three important points, near Amphi-
polis, and also at Methone and Pagasae, Philip's
power now reached the sea, over which Athens had
hitherto enjoyed an almost undisputed control. 3 He
soon contrived to get together a suflicient number
of armed ships and privateers. The navy of Athens
was doubtless far superior, but it was practically in-
effective owing to the languor and remissness of her
citizens. Philip retained possession of the important
port of Pagasae, he levied large contributions on the
insular allies of Athens, and recouped himself for
the costs of war by capturing the merchantmen of
the Aegean. His squadrons descended on the
Athenian islands of Lemnos and Imbros, carrying off
several Athenian citizens as prisoners. They even
reached as far as the south-eastern foreland of Euboea,
where they cut off the corn-ships bound for Athens ;
and lastly they suddenly swooped down upon the
1 Early in 351, ASchaefer ii 562, 1222.
3 October 351. a Rehdantz-Blass p. 15.
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? IV gs 1-3 THE FIRST PHILIPPIO' xlv
historic bay of Marathon and carried off the ' sacred
trireme' on its Way to Delos (4 ? 34, May 352 1).
IV The First Philippic of Demosthenes
In 351 13. 0. the leaders of the peace-party at
Athens, men who deserve the fullest credit for
checking Philip at Thermopylae, proposed no further
measures of energetic resistance to the aggressor.
They shrank from an appeal to the patriotism of
their countrymen. The indispensable duty which
they thus neglected was discharged by a far younger
politician, who was then beneath them in position
and influence, Demosthenes, who, in the thirty-fourth
year of his age, now delivered his First KM. " "Mm
Philippic. It had been usual for '"? " "3351M-
speakers of advanced age and mature experience to
rise first after the subject of the debate had been
announced. But on the present occasion the first
to rise was Demosthenes. His speech was to the
following efi'ect :--
Our customary advisers have so often spoken on the
subject of this debate, that I may be A "pootmov
excused for rising first on the present (ewvrdium)
occasion Introduction-
First of all, you must not despair. The best omen for the
future is your failure in the past, for that failure is
simply due to the fact that you have never a are? seitew.
yet done your duty (2). In the next place, Discussion
there was once a time when you contended with honour against Sparta ; if you take the _S"l"'1_'? ! l ofthe
. . I attuatwn ? ? 2--12.
same precautions now, you have nothing to
fear (3).