No More Learning

Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masæsylii, beginning from
the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called
Tretum,[954] the boundary of the country of [CAS. 829] the Masæsyli and
of the Masylies. From Metagonium to Tretum are 6000 stadia; according to
others, the distance is less.

Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is
very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the most renowned. The
city of Siga,[955] the royal seat of Syphax, is at the distance of 1000
stadia from the above-mentioned boundaries. It is now razed. After
Syphax, the country was in the possession of Masanasses, then of
Micipsa, next of his successors, and in our time of Juba, the father of
the Juba who died lately. Zama,[956] which was Juba’s palace, was
destroyed by the Romans. At the distance of 600 stadia from Siga is
Theon-limen (port of the gods);[957] next are some other obscure places.

Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and desert tracts
scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by
Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But the parts near the sea are fertile
plains, in which are numerous cities, rivers, and lakes.

10. Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly, that Africa is
traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he speaks of the same
rivers, namely those between Lynx and Carthage, which Artemidorus
describes as numerous and large. This may be asserted with more truth of
the interior of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it,
namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same is said of
Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought,
pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes are filled with mud only, and
locusts appear in clouds.

Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist, because
the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that the western
parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his course. Now, drought
and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the
presence or absence of the sun’s rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of
the effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by the
latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to the residence
of men, differ in different places, according to the position of each
inhabited spot and the change of horizon; so that it cannot be asserted
generally of places indefinite in number, that those lying to the east
are moist, and those to the west dry: but as applied to the whole earth
and such extremes of it as India and Spain, his expressions (east and
west) may be just; yet what truth or probability is there in his
(attempted) explanation (of the causes of drought and moisture)? for in
the continuous and unceasing circuit of the sun, what turn can there be
in his course? The rapidity too of his passage through every part is
equal. Besides, it is contrary to evidence to say, that the extreme
parts of Spain or Mauretania towards the west are drier than all other
places, when at the same time they are situated in a temperate climate
and have water in great abundance. But if we are to understand the
turning of the sun in this way, that there at the extremities of the
habitable world he is above the earth, how does that tend to produce
drought? for there, and in other places situated in the same latitude,
he leaves them for an equal portion of the night and returns again and
warms the earth.

11. Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring of asphaltus;
scorpions of enormous size,[958] both with and without wings, are said
to be found there, as well as tarantulas, remarkable for their size and
numbers. Lizards also are mentioned of two cubits in length. At the base
of the mountains precious stones are said to be found, as those called
the Lychnitis (the ruby) and the Carchedonius (the carbuncle? ). In the
plains are found great quantities of oyster and mussel shells, similar
to those mentioned in our description of Ammon. There is also a tree
called melilotus, from which a wine is made. Some obtain two crops from
the ground and have two harvests, one in the spring, the other in the
summer. The straw is five cubits in height, and of the thickness of the
little finger; the produce is 250-fold. They do not sow in the spring,
but bush-harrow the ground with bundles of the paliurus, and find the
seed-grain sufficient which falls from [CAS. 831] the sheaves during
harvest to produce the summer crop. In consequence of the number of
reptiles, they work with coverings on the legs; other parts of the body
also are protected by skins.

12. On this coast was a city called Iol,[959] which Juba, the father of
Ptolemy, rebuilt and changed its name to Cæsarea. It has a harbour and a
small island in front of it. Between Cæsarea and Tretum[960] is a large
harbour called Salda,[961] which now forms the boundary between the
territories subject to Juba and the Romans; for the country has been
subject to many changes, having had numerous occupants; and the Romans,
at various times, have treated some among them as friends, others as
enemies, conceding or taking away territories without observing any
established rule.

The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater revenue and was
more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and of the Masylies was more
flourishing and better furnished with buildings, although it suffered
first in the Carthaginian wars, and subsequently during the war with
Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),[962] and
put him to death as a friend of the Romans, and thus involved the whole
country in war. Other wars succeeded one another, of which the last was
that between divus Cæsar and Scipio, in which Juba lost his life. The
death of the leaders was accompanied by the destruction of the cities
Tisiæus,[963] Vaga,[964] Thala,[965] Capsa[966] (the treasure-hold of
Jugurtha), Zama,[967] and Zincha. To these must be added those cities in
the neighbourhood of which divus Cæsar obtained victories over Scipio,
namely, first at Ruspinum,[968] then at Uzita, then at Thapsus and the
neighbouring lake, and at many others. Near are the free cities Zella
and Acholla. [969] Cæsar also captured at the first onset the island
Cercinna,[970] and Thena, a small city on the sea-coast. Some of these
cities utterly disappeared, and others were abandoned, being partly
destroyed. Phara was burnt by the cavalry of Scipio.

13. After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies, and that of the
Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the interior is Cirta, the royal
residence of Masanasses and his successors. It is a very strong place
and well provided with everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa,
who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such
importance, that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice
as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities Hippo,[971]
one of which is situated near Ityca, the other further off near Tretum,
both royal residences. Ityca is next to Carthage in extent and
importance. On the destruction of Carthage it became a metropolis to the
Romans, and the head quarters of their operations in Africa. It is
situated in the very bay itself of Carthage, on one of the promontories
which form it, of which the one near Ityca is called Apollonium, the
other Hermæa. Both cities are in sight of each other. Near Ityca flows
the river Bagradas. [972] From Tretum to Carthage are 2,500 stadia, but
authors are not agreed upon this distance, nor on the distance (of
Carthage) from the Syrtes.

14. Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a circuit of 360
stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in length are upon the neck
of the peninsula, and reach from sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept
their elephants, it being a wide open place. In the middle of the city
was the acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height
with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of Esculapius,
which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas burnt herself to death
there, on the capture of the city. Below the Acropolis were the harbours
and the Cothon, a circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating
with the sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were
situated sheds for vessels.

[CAS. 832] 15. Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her people
from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in Spain and beyond the
Pillars proved so successful to the Phœnicians, that even to the present
day they occupy the best parts on the continent of Europe and the
neighbouring islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa,
with the exception of such parts as could only be held by nomade tribes.
From the power they acquired they raised a city to rival Rome, and waged
three great wars against her. Their power became most conspicuous in the
last war, in which they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their
city was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war, they
possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of Carthage amounted
to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender,
they delivered up 200,000 complete suits of armour and 3000[973] engines
for throwing projectiles, apparently with the intention of abandoning
all hostilities; but having resolved to recommence the war, they at once
began to manufacture arms, and daily deposited in store 140 finished
shields, 300 swords, 500 lances, and 1000 projectiles for the engines,
for the use of which the women-servants contributed their hair. In
addition to this, although at this moment they were in possession of
only twelve ships, according to the terms of the treaty concluded in the
second war, and had already taken refuge in a body at the Byrsa, yet in
two months they equipped 120 decked vessels; and, as the mouth of the
Cothon was closed against them, cut another outlet (to the sea) through
which the fleet suddenly made its appearance. For wood had been
collected for a long time, and a multitude of workmen were constantly
employed, who were maintained at the public expense.

Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to the ground.

The Romans made a province of that part of the country which had been
subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the rest Masanasses and his
descendants, beginning with Micipsa. For the Romans paid particular
attention to Masanasses on account of his great abilities and friendship
for them. For he it was who formed the nomades to civil life, and
directed their attention to husbandry. Instead of robbers he taught them
to be soldiers. A peculiarity existed among these people; they inhabited
a country favoured in everything except that it abounded with wild
beasts; these they neglected to destroy, and so to cultivate the soil in
security; but turning their arms against each other, abandoned the
country to the beasts of prey. Hence their life was that of wanderers
and of continual change, quite as much as that of those who are
compelled to it by want and barrenness of soil or severity of climate.
An appropriate name was therefore given to the Masæsylii, for they were
called Nomades. [974] Such persons must necessarily be sparing livers,
eaters of roots more than of flesh, and supported by milk and cheese.
Carthage remained a desolate place for a long time, for nearly the same
period, indeed, as Corinth, until it was restored about the same time
(as the latter city) by divus Cæsar, who sent thither such Romans to
colonize it as elected to go there, and also some soldiers. At present
it is the most populous city in Africa.

16. About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island Corsura. [975]
On the other side of the strait opposite to these places is Sicily and
Lilybæum,[976] at the distance of (about) 1500 stadia; for this is said
to be the distance from Lilybæum to Carthage. Not far from Corsura and
Sicily are other islands, among which is Ægimurus. [977] From Carthage
there is a passage of 60 stadia to the nearest opposite coast, from
whence there is an ascent of 120 stadia to Nepheris, a fortified city
built upon a rock. On the same gulf as Carthage, is situated a city
Tunis; hot springs and stone quarries are also found there; then the
rugged promontory Hermæa,[978] [CAS. 834] on which is a city of the
same name; then Neapolis; then Cape Taphitis,[979] on which is a hillock
named Aspis, from its resemblance (to a shield), at which place
Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, collected inhabitants when he made his
expedition against Carthage. These cities were destroyed by the Romans,
together with Carthage. At the distance of 400 stadia from Taphitis is
an island Cossuros, with a city of the same name, lying opposite to the
river Selinus in Sicily. Its circuit is 150 stadia, and its distance
from Sicily about 600 stadia. Melite,[980] an island, is 500 stadia
distant from Cossuros. Then follows the city Adrumes,[981] with a naval
arsenal; then the Taracheiæ, numerous small islands; then the city
Thapsus,[982] and near it Lopadussa,[983] an island situated far from
the coast; then the promontory of Ammon Balithon, near which is a
look-out for[984] the approach of thunny; then the city Thena, lying at
the entrance of the Little Syrtis. [985] There are many small cities in
the intervening parts, which are not worthy of notice. At the entrance
of the Syrtis, a long island stretches parallel to the coast, called
Cercinna; it is of considerable size, with a city of the same name;
there is also another smaller island Cercinnitis.

17. Close, in the neighbourhood (of these islands), is the Little
Syrtis, which is also called the Syrtis Lotophagitis (or the
lotus-eating Syrtis). The circuit of this gulf is 1600, and the breadth
of the entrance 600 stadia; at each of the promontories which form the
entrance and close to the mainland is an island, one of which, just
mentioned, is Cercinna, and the other Meninx;[986] they are nearly equal
in size. Meninx is supposed to be the “land of the lotus-eaters”[987]
mentioned by Homer. Certain tokens (of this) are shown, such as an altar
of Ulysses and the fruit itself. For the tree called the lotus-tree is
found in abundance in the island, and the fruit is very sweet to the
taste. There are many small cities in it, one of which bears the same
name as the island. On the coast of the Syrtis itself are also some
small cities. In the recess (of the Syrtis) is a very considerable mart
for commerce, where a river discharges itself into the gulf. The effects
of the flux and reflux of the tides extend up to this point, and at the
proper moment the neighbouring inhabitants eagerly rush (to the shore)
to capture the fish (thrown up).

18. After the Syrtis, follows the lake Zuchis, 400 stadia (in circuit? ),
with a narrow entrance, where is situated a city of the same name,
containing factories for purple dyeing and for salting of all kinds;
then follows another lake much smaller; after this the city
Abrotonon[988] and some others. Close by is Neapolis, which is also
called Leptis. [989] From hence the passage across to the Locri
Epizephyrii[990] is a distance of 3600 stadia. Next is the river
[Cinyps]. [991] Afterwards is a walled dam, constructed by the
Carthaginians, who thus bridged over some deep swamps which extend far
into the country. There are some places here without harbours, although
the rest of the coast is provided with them. Next is a lofty wooded
promontory, which is the commencement of the Great Syrtis, and called
Cephalæ (The Heads),[992] from whence to Carthage is a distance of a
little more than 5000 stadia.

19. Above the sea-coast from Carthage to Cephalæ (on the one hand) and
to the territory of the Masæsyli (on the other) lies the territory of
the Libo-Phœnicians, extending (into the interior) to the mountainous
country of the Gætuli, which belongs to Africa Proper. Above the Gætuli
is the country of the Garamantes, lying parallel to the former, and from
whence are brought the Carthaginian pebbles (carbuncles). The Garamantes
are said to be distant from the Ethiopians, who live on the borders of
the ocean, nine or ten days’ journey, and from the temple of Ammon
fifteen days. Between the Gætuli and the coast of our sea (the
Mediterranean) there are many plains and many mountains, great lakes and
rivers, some of which sink into the earth and disappear. The inhabitants
are simple in their mode of life and in their dress; they marry numerous
wives, and have a numerous offspring; in other respects they resemble
the nomade Arabians. The [CAS. 835] necks both of horses and oxen are
longer than in other countries.

The breeding of horses is most carefully attended to by the kings (of
the country); so much so, that the number of colts is yearly calculated
at 100,000. Sheep are fed with milk and flesh, particularly near
Ethiopia. These are the customs of the interior.

20. The circuit of the Great Syrtis is about 3930 stadia,[993] its depth
to the recess is 1500 stadia, and its breadth at the mouth is also
nearly the same. The difficulty of navigating both these and the Lesser
Syrtis [arises from the circumstances of] the soundings in many parts
being soft mud. It sometimes happens, on the ebbing and flowing of the
tide, that vessels are carried upon the shallows, settle down, and are
seldom recovered. Sailors therefore, in coasting, keep at a distance
(from the shore), and are on their guard, lest they should be caught by
a wind unprepared, and driven into these gulfs. Yet the daring
disposition of man induces him to attempt everything, and particularly
the coasting along a shore. On entering the Great Syrtis on the right,
after passing the promontory Cephalæ, is a lake of about 300 stadia in
length, and 70 stadia in breadth, which communicates with the gulf, and
has at its entrance small islands and an anchorage. After the lake
follows a place called Aspis, and a harbour, the best of all in the
Syrtis. Near this place is the tower Euphrantas, the boundary between
the former territory of Carthage and Cyrenaïca under Ptolemy (Soter).
Then another place, called Charax,[994] which the Carthaginians
frequented as a place of commerce, with cargoes of wine, and loaded in
return with silphium and its juice, which they received from merchants
who brought it away clandestinely from Cyrene; then the Altars of the
Philæni;[995] after these Automola, a fortress defended by a garrison,
and situated in the recess of the whole gulf. The parallel passing
through this recess is more to the south than that passing through
Alexandreia by 1000 stadia, and than that passing through Carthage by
less than 2000 stadia; but it would coincide with the parallel passing,
on one side, through Heroopolis, which is situated in the recess[996] of
the Arabian Gulf, and passing, on the other, through the interior of the
territory of the Masæsylii and the Mauretanians. The rest of the
sea-coast, to the city Berenice,[997] is 1500 stadia in length. Above
this length of coast, and extending to the Altars of the Philæni, are
situated an African nation called Nasamones. The intervening distance
(between the recess of the Syrtis and Berenice) contains but few
harbours, and watering-places are rare.

On a promontory called Pseudopenias is situated Berenice, near a lake
Tritonis, in which is to be observed a small island with a temple of
Venus upon it. There also is a lake of the Hesperides, into which flows
a river (called) Lathon. On this side of Berenice is a small promontory
called Boreion[998] (or North Cape), which with Cephalæ forms the
entrance of the Syrtis. Berenice lies opposite to the promontories of
Peloponnesus, namely, those called Ichthys[999] and [Chelonatas],[1000]
and also to the island Zacynthus,[1001] at an interval of 3600 stadia.
Marcus Cato marched from this city, round the Syrtis, in thirty days, at
the head of an army composed of more than 10,000 men, separated into
divisions on account of the watering-places; his course lay through deep
sand, under burning heat. After Berenice is a city Taucheira,[1002]
called also Arsinoë; then Barca,[1003] formerly so called, but now
Ptolemaïs; [CAS. 837] then the promontory Phycus,[1004] which is low,
but extends further to the north than the rest of the African coast; it
is opposite to Tænarum,[1005] in Laconia, at the distance[1006] of 2800
stadia; on it there is also a small town of the same name as the
promontory. Not far from Phycus, at a distance of about 170 stadia, is
Apollonias, the naval arsenal of Cyrene; from Berenice it is distant
1000 stadia, and 80 stadia from Cyrene, a considerable city situated on
a table-land, as I observed it from the sea.

21. Cyrene was founded by the inhabitants of Thera,[1007] a Lacedæmonian
island which was formerly called Calliste, as Callimachus says,

“Calliste once its name, but Thera in later times, the mother
of my home, famed for its steeds. ”

The harbour of Cyrene is situated opposite to Criu-Metopon,[1008] the
western cape of Crete, distant 2000 stadia. The passage is made with a
south-south-west wind. Cyrene is said to have been founded by
Battus,[1009] whom Callimachus claims to have been his ancestor. The
city flourished from the excellence of the soil, which is peculiarly
adapted for breeding horses, and the growth of fine crops. It has
produced many men of distinction, who have shown themselves capable of
worthily maintaining the freedom of the place, and firmly resisting the
barbarians of the interior; hence the city was independent in ancient
times, but subsequently[1010] it was attacked [successfully] by the
Macedonians, (who had conquered Egypt, and thus increased their power,)
under the command of Thibron the murderer of Harpalus: having continued
for some time to be governed by kings, it finally came under the power
of the Romans, and with Crete forms a single province. In the
neighbourhood of Cyrene are Apollonia, Barca, Taucheira, Berenice, and
other small towns close by.

22. Bordering upon Cyrenaïca is the district which produces silphium,
and the juice called Cyrenaic, which the silphium discharges from
incisions made in it. The plant was once nearly lost, in consequence of
a spiteful incursion of barbarians, who attempted to destroy all the
roots. The inhabitants of this district are nomades.

Remarkable persons of Cyrene were Aristippus,[1011] the Socratic
philosopher, who established the Cyrenaïc philosophy, and his daughter
named Arete, who succeeded to his school; she again was succeeded by her
son Aristippus, who was called Metrodidactos, (mother-taught,) and
Anniceris, who is supposed to have reformed the Cyrenaïc sect, and to
have introduced in its stead the Anniceric sect. Callimachus and
Eratosthenes[1012] were also of Cyrene, both of whom were held in honour
by the kings of Egypt; the former was both a poet and a zealous
grammarian; the latter followed not only these pursuits, but also
philosophy, and was distinguished above all others for his knowledge of
mathematics. Carneades[1013] also came from [CAS. 838] thence, who by
common consent was the first of the Academic philosophers, and
Apollonius Cronos, the master of Diodorus the Dialectician, who was also
called Cronos, for the epithet of the master was by some transferred to
the scholar.

The rest of the sea-coast of Cyrene from Apollonia to Catabathmus is
2200 stadia in length; it does not throughout afford facilities for
coasting along it; for harbours, anchorage, habitations, and
watering-places are few. The places most in repute along the coast are
the Naustathmus,[1014] and Zephyrium with an anchorage, also another
Zephyrium, and a promontory called Chersonesus,[1015] with a harbour
situated opposite to and to the south of Corycus[1016] in Crete, at the
distance of 2500 stadia; then a temple of Hercules, and above it a
village Paliurus; then a harbour Menelaus, and a low promontory
Ardanixis, (Ardanis,)[1017] with an anchorage; then a great harbour,
which is situated opposite to Chersonesus in Crete, at a distance of
about 3000 (2000? ) stadia; for the whole of Crete, which is (a) long and
narrow (island), lies opposite and nearly parallel to this coast. After
the great harbour is another harbour, Plynos, and about it Tetra-pyrgia
(the four towers). The place is called Catabathmus. [1018] Cyrenæa
extends to this point; the remainder (of the coast) to Parætonium,[1019]
and from thence to Alexandreia, we have spoken of in our account of
Egypt. [1020]

23. The country deep in the interior, and above the Syrtis and Cyrenæa,
a very sterile and dry tract, is in the possession of Libyans. First are
the Nasamones, then Psylli, and some Gætuli, then Garamantes; somewhat
more towards the east (than the Nasamones) are the Marmaridæ, who are
situated for the most part on the boundaries of Cyrenæa, and extend to
the temple of Ammon. It is asserted, that persons directing their course
from the recess of the Great Syrtis, (namely,) from about the
neighbourhood of Automala,[1021] in the direction of the winter
sunrise, arrive on the fourth day at Augila. [1022] This place resembles
Ammon, and is productive of palm trees, and is well supplied with water.
It is situated beyond Cyrenæa to the south: for 100 stadia the soil
produces trees; for another 100 stadia the land is only sown, but from
excessive heat does not grow rice.

Above these parts is the district which produces silphium, then follows
the uninhabited tract, and the country of the Garamantes. The district
which produces silphium is narrow, long, and dry, extending in an
easterly direction about 1000 stadia, but in breadth 300 stadia, or
rather more, at least as far as has been ascertained. For we may
conjecture that all countries which lie on the same parallel (of
latitude) have the same climate, and produce the same plants; but since
many deserts intervene, we cannot know every place. In like manner, we
have no information respecting the country beyond (the temple of) Ammon,
nor of the oases, as far as Ethiopia, nor can we state distinctly what
are the boundaries of Ethiopia, nor of Africa, nor even of the country
close upon Egypt, still less of the parts bordering on the ocean.

24. Such, then, is the disposition of the parts of the world which we
inhabit. [1023] But since the Romans have surpassed (in power) all former
rulers of whom we have any record, and possess the choicest and best
known parts of it, it will be suitable to our subject briefly to refer
to their Empire.

It has been already stated[1024] how this people, beginning from [CAS.
839] the single city of Rome, obtained possession of the whole of Italy,
by warfare and prudent administration; and how, afterwards, following
the same wise course, they added the countries all around it to their
dominion.

Of the three continents, they possess nearly the whole of Europe, with
the exception only of the parts beyond the Danube, (to the north,) and
the tracts on the verge of the ocean, comprehended between the Rhine and
the Tanaïs (Don).

Of Africa, the whole sea-coast on the Mediterranean is in their power;
the rest of that country is uninhabited, or the inhabitants only lead a
miserable and nomade life.

Of Asia likewise, the whole sea-coast in our direction (on the west) is
subject to them, unless indeed any account is to be taken of the Achæi,
Zygi, and Heniochi,[1025] who are robbers and nomades, living in
confined and wretched districts. Of the interior, and of the parts far
inland, the Romans possess one portion, and the Parthians, or the
barbarians beyond them, the other; on the east and north are Indians,
Bactrians, and Scythians; then (on the south) Arabians and Ethiopians;
but territory is continually being abstracted from these people by the
Romans.

Of all these countries some are governed by (native) kings, but the rest
are under the immediate authority of Rome, under the title of provinces,
to which are sent governors and collectors of tribute; there are also
some free cities, which from the first sought the friendship of Rome, or
obtained their freedom as a mark of honour. Subject to her also are some
princes, chiefs of tribes, and priests, who (are permitted) to live in
conformity with their national laws.

25. The division into provinces has varied at different periods, but at
present it is that established by Augustus Cæsar; for after the
sovereign power had been conferred upon him by his country for life, and
he had become the arbiter of peace and war, he divided the whole empire
into two parts, one of which he reserved to himself, the other he
assigned to the (Roman) people. The former consisted of such parts as
required military defence, and were barbarian, or bordered upon nations
not as yet subdued, or were barren and uncultivated, which though ill
provided with everything else, were yet well furnished with strongholds,
and might thus dispose the inhabitants to throw off the yoke and rebel.
All the rest, which were peaceable countries, and easily governed
without the assistance of arms, were given over to the (Roman) people.
Each of these parts was subdivided into several provinces, which
received respectively the titles of “provinces of Cæsar” and “provinces
of the People.
”

To the former provinces Cæsar appoints governors and administrators, and
divides the (various) countries sometimes in one way, sometimes in
another, directing his political conduct according to circumstances.

But the people appoint commanders and consuls to their own provinces,
which are also subject to divers divisions when expediency requires it.

(Augustus Cæsar) in his first organization of (the Empire) created two
consular governments, namely, (1. ) the whole of Africa in possession of
the Romans, excepting that part which was under the authority, first of
Juba, but now of his son Ptolemy; and (2. ) Asia within the Halys and
Taurus, except the Galatians and the nations under Amyntas, Bithynia,
and the Propontis. He appointed also ten consular governments in Europe
and in the adjacent islands. Iberia Ulterior (Further Spain) about the
river Bætis[1026] and Celtica Narbonensis[1027] (composed the two
first). The third was Sardinia, with Corsica; the fourth Sicily; the
fifth and sixth Illyria, districts near Epirus, and Macedonia; the
seventh Achaia, extending to Thessaly, the Ætolians, Acarnanians, and
the Epirotic nations who border upon Macedonia; the eighth Crete, with
Cyrenæa; the ninth Cyprus; the tenth Bithynia, with the Propontis and
some parts of Pontus.

Cæsar possesses other provinces, to the government of which he appoints
men of consular rank, commanders of armies, or knights;[1028] and in his
(peculiar) portion (of the empire) there are and ever have been kings,
princes, and (municipal) magistrates.