So is the
superior
man affected towards animals, that, having seen them alive, he cannot bear to see them die ; having heard their dying cries he cannot bear to eat their flesh.
Universal Anthology - v07
One of the prisoners, in the course of lament ing his own troubles, mentioned that he had unwittingly fallen into the company of a man who had committed murder for the sake of gold ; the victim was named Leucippe, and the crime, he said, had been committed at the instigation of Melitta.
Of course I cannot say whether this be true or not ; it is for you to institute inquiries.
You can produce the prisoner who made mention of the hired assassin ; Sosthenes, who can declare from whom he purchased Leucippe, and the maids, who can explain her disappearance.
Before you have thoroughly investigated each of these particulars, it is contrary to all law, whether human or divine, to pass sentence upon this unfortunate young man on the bare evidence of his frenzied words, for there can be no doubt that the violence of his grief has affected his intellect.
"
The arguments of Clinias appeared just and reasonable to many of those present, but Thersander's counsel, together with
270 CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
his friends, called out that sentence of death ought to be pro nounced without delay upon the murderer who, by the provi dence of the gods, had been made his own accuser. Melitta brought forward her maids, and required Thersander to pro duce Sosthenes, who might probably turn out to be the mur derer. This was the challenge mainly insisted upon by her counsel. Thersander, in great alarm, secretly dispatched one of his dependants into the country, with orders to Sosthenes to get out of the way at once, before the arrival of those who were about to be sent after him.
Mounting a horse without delay, the messenger rode full speed to inform the bailiff of the danger he ran of being put to the torture, if taken. Sosthenes was at that moment with Leu- cippe, doing his best to soothe her irritated feelings. Hearing himself summoned in a loud voice, he came out of the cottage ; and, upon learning the state of matters, overcome with fear, and thinking the officers were already at his heels, he got upon the horse, and rode off towards Smyrna ; after which the mes senger returned to his master. It is a true saying that fear drives away the power of recollection, for Sosthenes in his alarm for his own safety was so forgetful of everything else that he neglected to secure the door of Leucippe's cottage. Indeed slaves, generally speaking, when frightened, run into the very excess of cowardice. Melitta's advocates having given the above-mentioned challenge, Thersander came forward and said, " We have now surely had quite enough of this man's silly sto ries ; and I cannot but feel surprised at your want of sense, who, after convicting a murderer upon the strongest possible evidence, his own admission of his guilt, do not at once pass sentence of death upon him ; whereas, instead of doing this,
you suffer yourselves to be imposed upon by his plausible words and tears. For my part I believe him actuated by per sonal fears, and to be an accomplice in the murder ; nor can I see what possible need there can be for having recourse to the rack in a matter so clear already. Nay, more, I fully believe him to have had a hand in another murder ; for three days have now elapsed since I saw Sosthenes, the man whom they call upon me to bring forward ; it is not at all improbable that this is owing to their contrivance, since it was he who informed me of the act of adultery which has taken place, and having put him to death, they now craftily call upon me to produce the man, knowing it to be out of my power to do so. But
CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE. 271
even supposing he were alive and present, what difference could it make ? What questions would he put to him ? ' Did he ever purchase a certain female? ' 'Yes. ' 'Was this female in the power of Melitta ? ' ' Yes. ' Here would be an end of the examination, and Sosthenes would be dismissed. Let me now, however, address myself to Clitopho and Melitta.
" What have you done, I ask, with my slave ? — for a slave of mine she assuredly was, having been purchased by Sosthenes, and were she still alive, instead of having been murdered by them, my slave she would still be. " Thersander said this from mingled malice and cunning, in order that if Leucippe should turn out to be still alive, he might detain her in a state of servitude. He then continued : " Clitopho confessed that he killed her, he has therefore pronounced judgment upon him self. Melitta, on the other hand, denies the crime — her maids may be brought forward and tortured in order to refute what she says. If it should appear that they received the young woman from her, but have not brought her back again, the question will arise, What has become of her ? Why was she sent away ? And to whom was she sent ? Is it not self-evi dent that some persons had been hired to commit the murder, and that the maids were kept in ignorance of this, lest a num ber of witnesses might render discovery more probable ? No doubt they left her at some spot where a gang of ruffians were lying in concealment, so that it was out of their power to wit ness what took place. He has also trumped up some story about a prisoner who made mention of the murder. I should like to know who this prisoner is, who has not said a word on the subject to the chief magistrate, but has communicated, it seems, every particular to him, except the name of his informer. Again, I ask, will you not make an end of listening to such foolery, and taking any interest in such transparent absurdities ? Can you imagine that he would have turned a self-accuser with out the intervention of the deity ? " Thersander, after speaking to this effect, concluded by solemnly swearing that he was igno rant what had become of Sosthenes.
The presiding judge, who was of royal extraction, and who took cognizance of cases of blood, had, in accordance with the law, a certain number of assessors, men of mature age, whose province it was to assist him in judicial investigations. After conferring with them, he determined to pronounce sentence of death upon me, agreeably to a law which awarded capital pun
272 CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
ishment to any one standing convicted upon his own accusa tion. Melitta was to have a second trial, and her maids were to be examined by torture ; Thersander was to register his oath, declaratory of his ignorance as to Sosthenes. I, as already con demned to death, was to be tortured in order to make me con fess whether Melitta was privy to the murder. Already was I bound, stripped, and suspended aloft by ropes, while some were bringing scourges, others the fire and the wheel, and Clinias was lamenting loudly, and calling upon the gods, when lo ! the priest of Diana, crowned with laurel, was beheld approaching : the sign of a sacred embassy coming to offer sacrifices to the goddess. In such cases there is suspension of all judicial pun ishments during the days occupied in the performance of the sacrifice, and in consequence of this I was released. The chief of the sacred embassy was no other than Leucippe's father. Diana had appeared to the Byzantians, and had secured them victory in the war against the Thracians, in consequence of which they felt bound to send her a sacrifice in token of their gratitude. In addition to this, the goddess had appeared to Sostratus himself at night, signifying to him that he would find his daughter and his nephew at Ephesus. Just about this time, Leucippe perceived the door of the cottage to be left open ; and as, after a careful examination, Sosthenes was no where to be seen, her usual presence of mind and sanguine hopes returned. She remembered how often, contrary to all expectation, she had been preserved, and the thought of this gave her increased boldness. Fortune moreover favored her, since the temple of Diana was near the spot. Accordingly, hurrying thither, she sought refuge within its precincts. The temple afforded sanctuary to men and virgins, — any other woman incurred death by entering it, unless she happened to be a slave who had some cause of complaint against her master ; in which case she was permitted to take refuge there, and the matter was submitted to the decision of the magistrates ; supposing the master was acquitted, he took back his slave, being bound by oath to bear her no ill will on account of her having run away ; but on the contrary, the slave was proved to have justice on her side, she remained in the temple, and was employed in the service of the goddess. Leucippe arrived at the temple just at the time when Sostratus was conducting the priest to the scene of the trial, in order to suspend the proceedings, and was very near encountering her father.
if,
CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE. 273
When I was set free, the court broke up, and I was sur rounded by a concourse of people, some pitying me, some calling upon the gods in my behalf, others questioning me. Sostratus, coming by at the time, no sooner saw than he recog nized me ; for, as
I before mentioned, he had formerly been at Tyre upon the occasion of a festival of Hercules, and had passed a considerable time there before the period of our flight.
He at once knew me, and the more readily because his dream had led him to expect that he should find me and his daughter there. Coming up to me, therefore, "Do I see Clitopho? " said he; "and where is Leucippe? " Instantly recognizing him, I cast my eyes to the ground and remained silent, while the bystanders related to him every particular relative to my self-accusation. He no sooner heard what they had to say than, with an ejaculation of bitter grief, and smiting his head, he made a rush at me, and was very near pulling out my eyes, for I remained altogether passive and offered no resistance to his violence. At length Clinias, coming forward, checked his fury, and endeavored to pacify him. " What are you about ? " said he; "why are you venting your wrath against him; he loves Leucippe more dearly than you do, for he has"courted death from belief that she was no longer in existence ; and he added a great deal more in order to calm his irritation. He, on the other hand, continued to vent his grief, and to call upon Diana. " Is it for this that thou hast summoned me hither, O goddess? Is this the fulfilment of my vision? I gave cre dence to the dreams which thou didst send, and flattered my self that I should find my daughter ! In lieu of which thou offerest"me, forsooth, a welcome present, — my daughter's mur derer ! Hearing of the vision sent by Diana, Clinias was overjoyed. "Take courage, sir," he said; "the goddess will not belie herself ! Rest assured your daughter is alive ; be lieve me, I am prophesying truth; do you not remark how wonderfully she has rescued your nephew from the clutches of his torturers ? "
While this was going on, one of the ministers of the goddess came hurriedly to the priest, and announced that a foreign maiden had taken refuge in the temple. This intelligence, given in my hearing, inspired me with new life; my hopes revived, and I summoned courage to look up. " My prediction is being fulfilled, sir," said Clinias, addressing Sostratus ; and
then turning to the messenger he inquired, "Is the maiden vol. vn. — 18
274 CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
handsome ? " " She is second in beauty only to Diana herself," was the reply.
At these words I leaped for joy, and exclaimed, " It must be Leucippe ! " " You are right in your conjecture," said he ; " this was the very name she gave ; saying likewise that she was the daughter of one Sostratus, and a native of Byzantium. " Clinias now clapped his hands and shouted with delight, while Sostratus, overcome by his emotions, was ready to sink upon the ground. For my part, in spite of my fetters, I made a bound into the air, and then shot away towards the temple, like an arrow from a bow. The keepers pursued me, suppos ing that I was trying to escape, and bawled out to every one, " Stop him ! stop him ! " At that moment, however, I seemed to have wings upon my heels, and it was with much difficulty that some persons at length caught hold of me in my mad career. The keepers upon coming up were disposed to use violence, to which, however, I was no longer inclined to sub mit; nevertheless they persisted in dragging me towards the prison. By this time Clinias and"Sostratus had arrived at the
spot ; and the former called out, Whither are you taking this man ? — he is not guilty of the murder for which he has been condemned ! " Sostratus spoke to the same effect, and added that he was father to the maiden supposed to have been mur dered. The bystanders, learning the circumstances which had taken place, were loud in their praises of Diana, and surround ing me would not permit me to be taken to prison ; on the other hand, the keepers declared that they had no authority to set a prisoner at liberty who had been condemned to death. In the end, the priest, at the urgent entreaty of Sostratus, agreed to become bail, and to produce me in court whenever it should be required. Then at length freed from my fetters, I hurried on towards the temple, followed by Sostratus, whose feelings of joy could hardly, I think, equal my own.
Rumor, who outstrips the swiftest of men, had already reached Leucippe, and informed her of all particulars respect ing me and Sostratus. Upon catching sight of us she darted out of the temple, and threw her arms around her father, but at the same time her looks were turned on me ; the presence of Sostratus restrained me from embracing her, though I gazed intently upon her face ; and thus our greetings were confined to eyes.
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT. By MENCIUa.
[Manq-tsze, Latinized Mencius, the greatest of the Chinese teachers fol lowing Confucius, flourished from about n. c. 880 to 289. Of an old feudal house, deeply learned, and an enthusiastic follower of Confucius, he became the head of an influential school, and determined to raise China from the sink of anarchy, misery, and leveling doctrines into which it had fallen — there were seven war ring kingdoms — by becoming the chief adviser of a good king, whom he should find or make. He persevered in the effort for many years, treated well and listened to with respect, but his advice not followed ; finally he desisted, and went into retirement. His writings, full of deep moral truths, sagacious advice, and charm of style, have inspired every generation of Chinese since his time. ]
King Hwut of Leang said : " Small as my virtue is, in the government of my kingdom I do indeed exert my mind to the utmost. If the year be bad on the inside of the river, I remove as many of the people as I can to the east of the river, and convey grain to the country in the inside ; when the year is bad on the east of the river, I act on the same plan. On examining the government of the neighboring kingdoms, I do not find that there is any prince who employs his mind as I do. And yet the people of the neighboring kingdoms do not decrease, nor do my people increase. How is this? "
Mencius replied, " Your Majesty is fond of war. Let me take an illustration from war. The soldiers move forward to the sound of the drums ; and after their weapons have been crossed, on one side they throw away their coats of mail, trail their arms behind them, and run. Some run a hundred paces and stop ; some run fifty paces and stop. What would you think if those who run" fifty paces were to laugh at those who run a hundred paces ?
The king said, " They may not do so. They only did not run a hundred paces ; but they also ran away. "
"Since your Majesty knows this," replied Mencius, "you need not hope that your people will become more numerous than those of the neighboring kingdoms.
"If the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain will be more than can be eaten. If close nets are not allowed to enter the pools and ponds, the fishes and turtles will be more than can be consumed. If the axes and bills enter the hills and forests only at the proper time, the wood will be
276 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
more than can be used. When the grain and fish and turtles are more than can be eaten, and there is more wood than can be used, this enables the people to nourish their living and bury their dead, without any feeling against any. This con dition, in which the people nourish their living and bury their dead without any feeling against any, is the first step of royal government.
" Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five mow, and persons of fifty years may be clothed with silk. In keeping fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be neglected, and persons of seventy years may eat flesh. Let there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the farm with its hundred mow, and the family of several mouths that is supported by it shall not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to education in schools, inculcating in it especially the filial and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It never has been that the ruler of a state where such results were seen — persons of seventy wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering neither from hunger nor cold — did not attain to the imperial dignity.
" Your dogs and swine eat the food of men, and you do not know to make any restrictive arrangements. There are people dying from hunger on the roads, and you do not know to issue the stores of your granaries for them. When people die you say,'Itisnotowingtome; itisowingtotheyear. ' Inwhat does this differ from stabbing a man and killing him, and then
'
empire the people will come to you. "
King Hwuy of Leang said : " There was not in the empire
saying, ' It was not I
; it was the weapon ?
cease to lay the blame on the year, and instantly from all the
a stronger state than Tsin, as you, venerable Sir, know. But since it descended to me, on the east we have been defeated by Ts'e, and then my eldest son perished ; on the west we have lost seven hundred li of territory to Ts'in ; and on the south we have sustained disgrace at the hands of Ts'oo. I have brought shame on my departed predecessors, and wish on their account to wipe it away, once for all. What course is to be pursued to accomplish this ? "
Mencius replied, " With a territory which is only a hundred li square, it is possible to attain the imperial dignity.
Let your Majesty
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT. 277
" If your Majesty will indeed dispense a benevolent govern ment to the people, being sparing in the use of punishments and fines, and making the taxes and levies light, so causing that the field shall be plowed deep, and the weeding of them be carefully attended to, and that the strong-bodied, during their days of leisure, shall cultivate their filial piety, fraternal respectfulness, sincerity, and truthfulness, serving thereby, at home, their fathers and elder brothers, and abroad, their elders and superiors, you will then have a people who can be employed, with sticks which they have prepared, to oppose the strong mail and sharp weapons of the troops of Ts'in and Ts'oo.
"The rulers of those states rob their people of their time, so that they cannot plow and weed their fields in order to support their parents. Their parents suffer from cold and hunger. Brothers, wives, and children are separated and scattered abroad.
" Those rulers, as it were, drive their people into pitfalls or drown them. Your Majesty will go to punish them. In such a case, who will oppose your Majesty ?
" In accordance with this is the saying, ' The benevolent has no enemy. ' I beg your Majesty not to doubt what I say. "
Mencius went to see the King Seang of Leang.
On coming out from the interview, he said to some persons : " When I looked at him from a distance, he did not appear like a sovereign ; when I drew near to him, I saw nothing venerable about him. Abruptly he asked me, ' How can the empire be settled? ' I replied, 'It will be settled by being united under one sway. '
'
"'Whocan giveittohim? '
" I replied : ' All the people of the empire will unanimously give it to him. Does your Majesty understand the way of the growing grain ? During the seventh and eighth months, when drought prevails, the plants become dry. Then the clouds col lect densely in the heavens, they send down torrents of rain, and the grain erects itself, as if by a shoot. When it does so, who can keep it back? Now among the shepherds of men throughout the empire, if there were one who did not find
" ' Who can so unite it?
" I replied, ' He who has no pleasure in killing men can so unite it. '
278 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
pleasure in killing men, all the people in the empire would look towards him with outstretched necks. Such being, indeed, the case, the people would flock to him, as water flows down wards with a rush, which no one can repress. ' "
The King Seuen of Ts'e asked, saying, " May I be informed by you of the transactions of Hwan of Ts'e and Wan of
Ts'in? " " Mencius replied :
There were none of the disciples of Chun- que who spoke about the affairs of Hwan and Wan, and there
fore they have not been transmitted to these after ages, — your servant has not heard them. If you will have me speak, let it be about imperial government. "
The king said, " What virtue must there be in order to the attainment of imperial sway ? " Mencius answered, " The love and protection of the people ; with this there is no power which can prevent a ruler from attaining it. "
The king asked again, " Is such an one as I competent to love and protect the people? " Mencius said, "Yes. " " From
what do you know that I am competent to that ? "
the following incident from Hoo Heih : ' The king,' said he, ' was sitting aloft in the hall, when a man appeared, leading an
ox past the lower part of it. The king saw him, and asked, Where is the ox going ? The man replied, We are going to con secrate a hell with its blood. The king said, Let it go. I can not bear its frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the place of death. The man answered, Shall we then omit the consecration of the hell? The king said, How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep. ' I do not know whether this incident really occurred. "
The king replied, " It did," and then Mencius said, " The heart seen in this is sufficient to carry you to the imperial sway. The people all supposed that your Majesty grudged the animal, but your servant knows surely that it was your Majesty's not being able to bear the sight, which made you do as you did. " "
You are right. And yet there really was
The king said,
an appearance of what the people condemned. But though Ts'e be a small and narrow state, how should I grudge one ox? Indeed it was because I could not bear its frightened ap pearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the place of death, that therefore I changed it for a sheep. "
"
I heard
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT. 279
Mencius pursued, " Let not your Majesty deem it strange that the people should think you were grudging the animal. When you changed a large one for a small, how should they know the true reason? If you felt pained by its being led without guilt to the place of death, what was there to choose between an ox and a sheep ? "
I did not grudge the expense of it, and changed
it for a sheep ! There was reason in the people's saying that I
grudged it. "
" "There is no harm in their saying so," said Mencius.
Your conduct was an artifice of benevolence. You saw the ox, and had not seen the sheep.
So is the superior man affected towards animals, that, having seen them alive, he cannot bear to see them die ; having heard their dying cries he cannot bear to eat their flesh. Therefore, he keeps away from his cook- room. " " '
The king was pleased, and said, It is said in the Book of Poetry,' 'The minds of others, I am able by reflection to measure ; ' this is verified, my master, in your discovery of my motive. I indeed did the thing, but when I turned my thoughts inward, and examined into it, I could not discover my own mind, when you, Master, spoke those words, the movements of compassion began to work in my mind. How is it that this heart has in it what is equal to the imperial sway ? "
Mencius replied, " Suppose a man were to make this state ment to your Majesty : ' My strength is sufficient to lift three thousand catties, but it is not sufficient to lift one feather; my eyesight is sharp enough to examine the point of an autumn hair, but I do not see a wagonload of fagots ; ' would your Majesty allow what he said ? " " No," was the answer, on which Mencius proceeded, "Now here is kindness sufficient to reach to animals, and no benefits are extended from it to the people. How is this? Is an exception to be made here? The truth is, the feather's not being lifted is because the strength is not used ; the wagonload of firewood's not being seen is because the vision is not used ; and the people's not being loved and protected is because the kind ness is not employed. Therefore your Majesty's not exercising the imperial sway is because you do not do it, not because you are not able to do it. "
The king laughed and said, " What really was my mind in
the matter?
280 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
The king asked, " How may the difference between the not doing a thing and the not being able to do it, be represented ? " Mencius replied : " In such a thing as taking the T'ae Moun tain under your arm, and leaping over the North Sea with it, if you say to your people, ' I am not able to do it,' that is a real case of not being able. In such a matter as breaking off a branch from a tree at the order of a superior, if you say to people, ' I am not able to do it,' that is a case of not doing it, it is not a case of not being able to do it. Therefore your Maj esty's not exercising the imperial sway is not such a case as that of taking the T'ae Mountain under your arm, and leaping over the North Sea with it. Your Majesty's not exercising the imperial sway is a case like that of breaking off a branch from a tree.
" Treat with the reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the families of others shall be simi larly treated ; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated ; do this, and the empire may be made to go round in your palm. It is said in the ' Book of Poetry,' ' His example affected his wife. It reached to his brothers, and his family of the state was governed by it. ' The language shows how King Wan simply took this kindly heart, and exercised it towards those parties. Therefore, the carrying out his kindly heart by a prince will suffice for the love and protection of all within the four seas, and if he do not carry it out, he will not be able to protect his wife and children. The way in which the ancients came greatly to surpass other men was no other than this, — simply that they knew how to carry out, so as to affect others, what they themselves did. Now, your kindness is sufficient to reach to animals, and no benefits are extended from it to reach the people. How is this ? Is an exception to be made here ?
" By weighing, we know what things are light, and what heavy. By measuring we know what things are long, and what short. The relations of all things may be thus deter mined, and it is of the greatest importance to estimate the motions of the mind. I beg your Majesty to measure it.
" You collect your equipments of war, endanger your sol diers and officers, and excite the resentment of the other princes : do these things cause you pleasure in your mind ? "
The king laughed, and did not speak. Mencius resumed :
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
281
" Are you led to desire it because you have not enough of rich and sweet food for your mouth ? Or because you have not enough of light and warm clothing for your body? Or because you have not enow of beautifully colored objects to delight your eyes ? Or because you have not voices and tones enow to please your ears ? Or because you have not enow of attendants and favorites to stand before you and receive your orders ? Your Majesty's various officers are sufficient to sup ply you with those things. How can your Majesty be led to entertain such a desire on account of them ? " " No," said the king; "my desire is not on account of them. " Mencius added, " Then, what your Majesty greatly desires may be known. You wish to enlarge your territories, to have Ts'in and Ts'oo wait at your court, to rule the Middle Kingdom, and to attract to you the barbarous tribes that surround it. But to do what you do to seek for what you desire is like climbing a tree to seek for fish. " "
The king said, "Is it so bad as that?
was the reply. " If you climb a tree to seek for fish, although you do not get the fish, you will not suffer any subsequent calamity. But if you do what you do to seek for what you desire, doing it moreover with all your heart, you will as suredly afterwards meet with calamities. " The king asked, " May I hear from you the proof of that ? " Mencius said, " If the people of Tsow should fight with the people of Ts'oo, which of them does your Majesty think would conquer ? " "The people of Ts'oo could conquer. " "Yes; — and so it is certain that a small country cannot contend with a great, that few cannot contend with many, that the weak cannot contend with the strong. The territory within the four seas embraces nine divisions, each of a thousand li square. All Ts'e to gether is but one of them. If with one part you try to subdue the other eight, what is the difference between that and Tsow's contending with Ts'oo ? For, with the desire which you have, you must likewise turn back to the radical course for its attainment.
" Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action shall all be benevolent, this will cause all the officers in the empire to wish to stand in your Majesty's court, and the farmers all to wish to plow in your Majesty's fields, and the merchants, both traveling and stationary, all to wish to store their goods in your Majesty's market places, and traveling
"Itis even worse,"
282 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
strangers all to wish to make their tours on your Majesty's roads, and all throughout the empire who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come and complain to your Majesty. And when they are so bent, who will be able to keep them back? " "
I am stupid, and not able to advance to this. I wish you, my master, to assist my intentions. Teach me clearly ; although I am deficient in intelligence and vigor, I
The king said,
will essay and try to carry your instructions into effect. " Mencius replied, "They are only men of education, who,
without a certain livelihood, are able to maintain a fixed heart. As to the people, if they have not a certain livelihood, it follows that they will not have a fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which they will not do, in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of depravity, and of wild license. When they thus have been involved in crime, to follow them up and punish them, — this is to entrap the people. How can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a benevolent man ?
" Therefore an intelligent ruler will regulate the livelihood of the people, so as to make sure that, above, they shall have sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and, below, suffi cient wherewith to support their wives and children ; that in good years they shall always be abundantly satisfied, and that in bad years they shall escape the danger of perishing. After this he may urge them, and they will proceed to what is good, for in this case the people will follow after that with ease.
"Now, the livelihood of the people is so regulated that, above, they have not sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and below, they have not sufficient wherewith to support their wives and children. Notwithstanding good years, their lives are continually embittered, and, in bad years, they do not escape perishing. In such circumstances they only try to save them selves from death, and are afraid they will not succeed. What leisure have they to cultivate propriety and righteousness ?
" If your Majesty wishes to effect this regulation of the livelihood of the people, why not turn to that which is the essential step to it ?
" Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five mow, and persons of fifty years may be clothed with silk. In keeping fowls, pigs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be neglected, and persons of seventy years may eat
THE CLAY CART. 283
flesh. Let there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the farm with its hundred mow, and the family of eight mouths that is supported by it shall not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to education in schools, — the inculcation in it especially of the filial and fra ternal duties, and gray -haired men will not be seen upon the roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It never has been that the ruler of a state where such results were seen, — the old wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering neither from hunger nor cold, — did not attain to the imperial dignity. "
THE CLAY CART.
Translated and Abridged by Sir MONIER MONIER-WILLIAMS.
[Sir Monier Monier- Williams : A leading Anglo-Indian lexicographer and Orientalist ; born at Bombay, India, November 12, 1819 ; died 1889. From 1860 on he was professor of Sanskrit in Oxford. He published several Sanskrit dictionaries, a Sanskrit and a Hindustani grammar; "Indian Epic Poetry" (1863), "Indian Wisdom" (1875), "Hinduism" (1877), "Modern India and the Indians" (1878), "Buddhism," etc. , 1889. ]
[The earliest extant Sanskrit drama : attributed to King Sudraka, who is sometimes said to have reigned in the first or second century B. C. ; but the play in fact is probably not much earlier than the fifth century a. d. , and by some playwright who judiciously gave the king the honor. ]
The first scene represents a court in front of Caru-datta's house. His friend Maitreya — who, although a Brahman, acts the part of a sort of jovial companion, and displays a disposi tion of mixed shrewdness and simplicity — laments Caru-datta's fallen fortunes, caused by his too great liberality.
replies thus : —
Carurdatta —
Think not, my friend, I mourn departed wealth : One thing alone torments me, — that my guests Desert my beggared house, like to the bees
That swarm around the elephant, when dews Exhale from his broad front ; but quickly leave His dried-up temples when they yield no sweets.
Caru-datta
284
THE CLAY CART.
Maitreya — The sons of slaves! These guests you speak of are always ready to make a morning meal off a man's property.
Caru-datta —
It is most true, but I bestow no thought
On my lost property, — as fate decrees — Wealth comes and goes ; but this is torture to me, That friendships I thought firm hang all relaxed And loose, when poverty sticks closest to me.
From poverty 'tis but a step to shame —
From shame to loss of manly self-respect ;
Then comes disdainful scorn, then dark despair O'erwhelms the mind with melancholy thoughts, Then reason goes, and last of all comes ruin.
Oh ! poverty is source of every ill.
Maitreya — Ah well, cheer up ! Let's have no more of these woe begone memories. What's lost can't be recovered.
Caru-datta —I will grieve no more. Go you, my friend, Good !
And offer this oblation, just prepared,
Unto the gods, and mothers of us all.
Maitreya —Not I.
Caru-datta — And why not, pray?
Maitreya —Why, what's the use, when the gods you have wor
shiped have done nothing for you ? Caru-datta —
Friend, speak not thus, for worship is the duty Of every family ; the gods are honored
By offerings, and gratified by acts
Of penance and restraint in thought and word. Therefore, delay not to present the oblation.
Maitreya — I don't intend to go; send some one else. Caru-datta —
Stay quiet then for a little, till I have finished My religious meditations and prayer.
They are supposed here to retire, and a voice is heard be hind the scenes : —
Stop ! Vasanta-sena, stop !
The heroine of the play now appears in front of Caru- datta's house, pursued by the king's worthless but wealthy brother-in-law, called Samsthanaka, who is an embodiment of everything vicious and mean, in exact contrast to Caru-datta.
Samsthanaka — Stop! Vasanta-sena, stop! Why do you run away ? Don't be alarmed. I am not going to kill you. My poor
THE CLAY CART. 285
heart is on fire with love, like a piece of meat placed on a heap of burning coals.
Vasanta-sena — Noble sir, I am only a weak woman. Samstlianaka — That is just why I don't intend murdering you. Vasanta-sena — Why then do you pursue me ? Do you seek my
jewels ?
Samsthandka — No, I only seek to gain your affections.
At this point the frightened Vasanta-sena discovers that she is close to Caru-datta's house. He is not only loved by her, but greatly respected as a man of honor ; and under cover of the evening darkness, now supposed to have supervened, she slips into the courtyard of his house by a side door, and hides herself. A companion who is with the king's brother now counsels him to desist from following her, by remarking: —
An elephant is bound by a chain,
A horse is curbed by a bridle and rein ; — But a woman is only held by her heart
If you can't hold that, you had better depart.
Samsthanaka, however, forces his way into Caru-datta's house ; and there finding Caru-datta's friend and companion Maitreya, thus addresses him: —
Take this message to Caru-datta. — Vasanta-sena loves you, and has taken refuge in your house. If you will deliver her up, you shall be rewarded by my everlasting friendship; if not, I shall remain your enemy till death. Give this message, so that I may hear you from the neighboring terrace; refuse to say exactly what I have told you, and I will crush your head as I would a wood apple beneath a door.
He then leaves the stage.
Maitreya accordingly delivers the message. Soon after wards the heroine Vasanta-sena ventures into the presence of Caru-datta, asks pardon for intruding into his house, requests him to take charge of a golden casket containing her ornaments as a deposit left in trust, and solicits his friend's escort back to her own house.
Maitreya is too much alarmed to accompany her, so Caru- datta himself escorts Vasanta-sena home.
So far is an epitome of the first act.
At the commencement of the second act a gambler is intro duced running away from the keeper of a gaming house, named
286 THE CLAY CART.
Mathura, and another gambler to whom the first gambler has lost money, who are both pursuing him.
First Gambler — The master of the tables and the gamester are at my heels : how can I escape them ? Here is an empty temple: I will enter it walking backwards, and pretend to be its idol.
Mathura — Ho there ! stop, thief ! A gambler has lost ten suvar- nas, and is running off without paying. Stop him, stop him !
Second Gambler — He has run as far as this point ; but here the
They enter and make signs to each other on discovering the object of their search, who pretends to be an idol fixed on a pedestal.
track is lost. — Mathura Ah !
I see, — the footsteps are reversed : the rogue has walked backwards into this temple which has no image in it.
Second Gambler — Is this a wooden image, I wonder?
Mathura — No, no, it must be made of stone, I think. [So say ing, they shake and pinch him. ] Never mind, sit we down here, and play out our game. [They commence playing. ]
First Gambler [still acting the image, but looking on and toith difficulty restraining his wish to join in the game. Aside] — The rat tling of dice is as tantalizing to a penniless man as the sound of drums to a dethroned monarch ; verily it is sweet as the note of a nightingale.
Second Gambler — The throw is mine, the throw is mine! Mathura — No, it is mine, I say.
First Gambler [forgetting himself and jumping off his pedestal] —
No, I tell you it is mine.
Second Gambler — We've caught him!
Mathura — Yes, rascal, you're caught at last: hand over the
suvarnas. — First Gambler
Worthy sir, I'll pay them in good time.
Mathura — Hand them over this very minute, I say. [ They beat
him. ]
First Gambler [aside to Second Gambler] — I'll pay you half if
you will forgive me the rest.
Second Gambler — Agreed.
First Gambler [aside to Mathura] — I'll give you security for
half if you will let me off the other half.
Mathura — Agreed.
First Gambler — Then good morning to you, sirs; I'm off.
THE CLAY CART. 287
Mathura —Hullo! stop there, where are you going so fast? Hand over the money.
First Gambler — See here, my good sirs, one has taken security for half, and the other has let me off another half. Isn't it clear I have nothing to pay ?
Mathura —No, no, my fine fellow: my name is Mathura, and I'm not such a fool as you take me for. Don't suppose I'm going to be cheated out of my ten suvarnas in this way. Hand them over, you scoundrel.
Upon that they set to work beating the unfortunate gam bler, whose cries for help bring to his rescue another gamester who happens to be passing. A general scuffle now takes place, and in the midst of the confusion the first gambler escapes. In his flight he comes to the house of Vasanta-sena, and finding the door open, rushes in. Vasanta-sena inquires who he is and what he wants. He then recites his story, and makes known to her that having been once in the service of Caru-datta, and having been discharged by him on account of his reduced cir cumstances, he has been driven to seek a livelihood by gambling. The mention of Caru-datta at once secures Vasanta-sena's aid ; and the pursuers having now tracked their fugitive to the door of her house, she sends them out a jeweled bracelet, which satis fies their demands, and they retire. The gambler expresses the deepest gratitude, hopes in return to be of use to Vasanta-sena at some future time, and announces his intention of abandoning his disreputable mode of life and becoming a Buddhist mendicant.
The third act opens with a scene inside Caru-datta's house. The time is supposed to be night. Caru-datta and Maitreya are absent at a concert. A servant is preparing their sleeping couches, and commences talking to himself thus : —
A good master who is kind to his servants, even though he be poor, is their delight ; while a harsh fellow, who is always finding fault and has nothing but his money to be proud of, is a perpetual torment from morning to night. Well, well ! one can't alter nature ; an ox can't be kept out of a field of corn, and a man once addicted to gambling can't be induced to leave off. My good master has gone to a concert. I must await his return ; so I may as well take a nap in the hall.
Meanwhile Caru-datta and Maitreya come back, and the servant delivers Vasanta-sena's golden casket, saying that it is his turn to take charge of it by night. They now lie down.
288
THE CLAY CART.
The arguments of Clinias appeared just and reasonable to many of those present, but Thersander's counsel, together with
270 CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
his friends, called out that sentence of death ought to be pro nounced without delay upon the murderer who, by the provi dence of the gods, had been made his own accuser. Melitta brought forward her maids, and required Thersander to pro duce Sosthenes, who might probably turn out to be the mur derer. This was the challenge mainly insisted upon by her counsel. Thersander, in great alarm, secretly dispatched one of his dependants into the country, with orders to Sosthenes to get out of the way at once, before the arrival of those who were about to be sent after him.
Mounting a horse without delay, the messenger rode full speed to inform the bailiff of the danger he ran of being put to the torture, if taken. Sosthenes was at that moment with Leu- cippe, doing his best to soothe her irritated feelings. Hearing himself summoned in a loud voice, he came out of the cottage ; and, upon learning the state of matters, overcome with fear, and thinking the officers were already at his heels, he got upon the horse, and rode off towards Smyrna ; after which the mes senger returned to his master. It is a true saying that fear drives away the power of recollection, for Sosthenes in his alarm for his own safety was so forgetful of everything else that he neglected to secure the door of Leucippe's cottage. Indeed slaves, generally speaking, when frightened, run into the very excess of cowardice. Melitta's advocates having given the above-mentioned challenge, Thersander came forward and said, " We have now surely had quite enough of this man's silly sto ries ; and I cannot but feel surprised at your want of sense, who, after convicting a murderer upon the strongest possible evidence, his own admission of his guilt, do not at once pass sentence of death upon him ; whereas, instead of doing this,
you suffer yourselves to be imposed upon by his plausible words and tears. For my part I believe him actuated by per sonal fears, and to be an accomplice in the murder ; nor can I see what possible need there can be for having recourse to the rack in a matter so clear already. Nay, more, I fully believe him to have had a hand in another murder ; for three days have now elapsed since I saw Sosthenes, the man whom they call upon me to bring forward ; it is not at all improbable that this is owing to their contrivance, since it was he who informed me of the act of adultery which has taken place, and having put him to death, they now craftily call upon me to produce the man, knowing it to be out of my power to do so. But
CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE. 271
even supposing he were alive and present, what difference could it make ? What questions would he put to him ? ' Did he ever purchase a certain female? ' 'Yes. ' 'Was this female in the power of Melitta ? ' ' Yes. ' Here would be an end of the examination, and Sosthenes would be dismissed. Let me now, however, address myself to Clitopho and Melitta.
" What have you done, I ask, with my slave ? — for a slave of mine she assuredly was, having been purchased by Sosthenes, and were she still alive, instead of having been murdered by them, my slave she would still be. " Thersander said this from mingled malice and cunning, in order that if Leucippe should turn out to be still alive, he might detain her in a state of servitude. He then continued : " Clitopho confessed that he killed her, he has therefore pronounced judgment upon him self. Melitta, on the other hand, denies the crime — her maids may be brought forward and tortured in order to refute what she says. If it should appear that they received the young woman from her, but have not brought her back again, the question will arise, What has become of her ? Why was she sent away ? And to whom was she sent ? Is it not self-evi dent that some persons had been hired to commit the murder, and that the maids were kept in ignorance of this, lest a num ber of witnesses might render discovery more probable ? No doubt they left her at some spot where a gang of ruffians were lying in concealment, so that it was out of their power to wit ness what took place. He has also trumped up some story about a prisoner who made mention of the murder. I should like to know who this prisoner is, who has not said a word on the subject to the chief magistrate, but has communicated, it seems, every particular to him, except the name of his informer. Again, I ask, will you not make an end of listening to such foolery, and taking any interest in such transparent absurdities ? Can you imagine that he would have turned a self-accuser with out the intervention of the deity ? " Thersander, after speaking to this effect, concluded by solemnly swearing that he was igno rant what had become of Sosthenes.
The presiding judge, who was of royal extraction, and who took cognizance of cases of blood, had, in accordance with the law, a certain number of assessors, men of mature age, whose province it was to assist him in judicial investigations. After conferring with them, he determined to pronounce sentence of death upon me, agreeably to a law which awarded capital pun
272 CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
ishment to any one standing convicted upon his own accusa tion. Melitta was to have a second trial, and her maids were to be examined by torture ; Thersander was to register his oath, declaratory of his ignorance as to Sosthenes. I, as already con demned to death, was to be tortured in order to make me con fess whether Melitta was privy to the murder. Already was I bound, stripped, and suspended aloft by ropes, while some were bringing scourges, others the fire and the wheel, and Clinias was lamenting loudly, and calling upon the gods, when lo ! the priest of Diana, crowned with laurel, was beheld approaching : the sign of a sacred embassy coming to offer sacrifices to the goddess. In such cases there is suspension of all judicial pun ishments during the days occupied in the performance of the sacrifice, and in consequence of this I was released. The chief of the sacred embassy was no other than Leucippe's father. Diana had appeared to the Byzantians, and had secured them victory in the war against the Thracians, in consequence of which they felt bound to send her a sacrifice in token of their gratitude. In addition to this, the goddess had appeared to Sostratus himself at night, signifying to him that he would find his daughter and his nephew at Ephesus. Just about this time, Leucippe perceived the door of the cottage to be left open ; and as, after a careful examination, Sosthenes was no where to be seen, her usual presence of mind and sanguine hopes returned. She remembered how often, contrary to all expectation, she had been preserved, and the thought of this gave her increased boldness. Fortune moreover favored her, since the temple of Diana was near the spot. Accordingly, hurrying thither, she sought refuge within its precincts. The temple afforded sanctuary to men and virgins, — any other woman incurred death by entering it, unless she happened to be a slave who had some cause of complaint against her master ; in which case she was permitted to take refuge there, and the matter was submitted to the decision of the magistrates ; supposing the master was acquitted, he took back his slave, being bound by oath to bear her no ill will on account of her having run away ; but on the contrary, the slave was proved to have justice on her side, she remained in the temple, and was employed in the service of the goddess. Leucippe arrived at the temple just at the time when Sostratus was conducting the priest to the scene of the trial, in order to suspend the proceedings, and was very near encountering her father.
if,
CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE. 273
When I was set free, the court broke up, and I was sur rounded by a concourse of people, some pitying me, some calling upon the gods in my behalf, others questioning me. Sostratus, coming by at the time, no sooner saw than he recog nized me ; for, as
I before mentioned, he had formerly been at Tyre upon the occasion of a festival of Hercules, and had passed a considerable time there before the period of our flight.
He at once knew me, and the more readily because his dream had led him to expect that he should find me and his daughter there. Coming up to me, therefore, "Do I see Clitopho? " said he; "and where is Leucippe? " Instantly recognizing him, I cast my eyes to the ground and remained silent, while the bystanders related to him every particular relative to my self-accusation. He no sooner heard what they had to say than, with an ejaculation of bitter grief, and smiting his head, he made a rush at me, and was very near pulling out my eyes, for I remained altogether passive and offered no resistance to his violence. At length Clinias, coming forward, checked his fury, and endeavored to pacify him. " What are you about ? " said he; "why are you venting your wrath against him; he loves Leucippe more dearly than you do, for he has"courted death from belief that she was no longer in existence ; and he added a great deal more in order to calm his irritation. He, on the other hand, continued to vent his grief, and to call upon Diana. " Is it for this that thou hast summoned me hither, O goddess? Is this the fulfilment of my vision? I gave cre dence to the dreams which thou didst send, and flattered my self that I should find my daughter ! In lieu of which thou offerest"me, forsooth, a welcome present, — my daughter's mur derer ! Hearing of the vision sent by Diana, Clinias was overjoyed. "Take courage, sir," he said; "the goddess will not belie herself ! Rest assured your daughter is alive ; be lieve me, I am prophesying truth; do you not remark how wonderfully she has rescued your nephew from the clutches of his torturers ? "
While this was going on, one of the ministers of the goddess came hurriedly to the priest, and announced that a foreign maiden had taken refuge in the temple. This intelligence, given in my hearing, inspired me with new life; my hopes revived, and I summoned courage to look up. " My prediction is being fulfilled, sir," said Clinias, addressing Sostratus ; and
then turning to the messenger he inquired, "Is the maiden vol. vn. — 18
274 CLITOPHO AND LEUCIPPE.
handsome ? " " She is second in beauty only to Diana herself," was the reply.
At these words I leaped for joy, and exclaimed, " It must be Leucippe ! " " You are right in your conjecture," said he ; " this was the very name she gave ; saying likewise that she was the daughter of one Sostratus, and a native of Byzantium. " Clinias now clapped his hands and shouted with delight, while Sostratus, overcome by his emotions, was ready to sink upon the ground. For my part, in spite of my fetters, I made a bound into the air, and then shot away towards the temple, like an arrow from a bow. The keepers pursued me, suppos ing that I was trying to escape, and bawled out to every one, " Stop him ! stop him ! " At that moment, however, I seemed to have wings upon my heels, and it was with much difficulty that some persons at length caught hold of me in my mad career. The keepers upon coming up were disposed to use violence, to which, however, I was no longer inclined to sub mit; nevertheless they persisted in dragging me towards the prison. By this time Clinias and"Sostratus had arrived at the
spot ; and the former called out, Whither are you taking this man ? — he is not guilty of the murder for which he has been condemned ! " Sostratus spoke to the same effect, and added that he was father to the maiden supposed to have been mur dered. The bystanders, learning the circumstances which had taken place, were loud in their praises of Diana, and surround ing me would not permit me to be taken to prison ; on the other hand, the keepers declared that they had no authority to set a prisoner at liberty who had been condemned to death. In the end, the priest, at the urgent entreaty of Sostratus, agreed to become bail, and to produce me in court whenever it should be required. Then at length freed from my fetters, I hurried on towards the temple, followed by Sostratus, whose feelings of joy could hardly, I think, equal my own.
Rumor, who outstrips the swiftest of men, had already reached Leucippe, and informed her of all particulars respect ing me and Sostratus. Upon catching sight of us she darted out of the temple, and threw her arms around her father, but at the same time her looks were turned on me ; the presence of Sostratus restrained me from embracing her, though I gazed intently upon her face ; and thus our greetings were confined to eyes.
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT. By MENCIUa.
[Manq-tsze, Latinized Mencius, the greatest of the Chinese teachers fol lowing Confucius, flourished from about n. c. 880 to 289. Of an old feudal house, deeply learned, and an enthusiastic follower of Confucius, he became the head of an influential school, and determined to raise China from the sink of anarchy, misery, and leveling doctrines into which it had fallen — there were seven war ring kingdoms — by becoming the chief adviser of a good king, whom he should find or make. He persevered in the effort for many years, treated well and listened to with respect, but his advice not followed ; finally he desisted, and went into retirement. His writings, full of deep moral truths, sagacious advice, and charm of style, have inspired every generation of Chinese since his time. ]
King Hwut of Leang said : " Small as my virtue is, in the government of my kingdom I do indeed exert my mind to the utmost. If the year be bad on the inside of the river, I remove as many of the people as I can to the east of the river, and convey grain to the country in the inside ; when the year is bad on the east of the river, I act on the same plan. On examining the government of the neighboring kingdoms, I do not find that there is any prince who employs his mind as I do. And yet the people of the neighboring kingdoms do not decrease, nor do my people increase. How is this? "
Mencius replied, " Your Majesty is fond of war. Let me take an illustration from war. The soldiers move forward to the sound of the drums ; and after their weapons have been crossed, on one side they throw away their coats of mail, trail their arms behind them, and run. Some run a hundred paces and stop ; some run fifty paces and stop. What would you think if those who run" fifty paces were to laugh at those who run a hundred paces ?
The king said, " They may not do so. They only did not run a hundred paces ; but they also ran away. "
"Since your Majesty knows this," replied Mencius, "you need not hope that your people will become more numerous than those of the neighboring kingdoms.
"If the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain will be more than can be eaten. If close nets are not allowed to enter the pools and ponds, the fishes and turtles will be more than can be consumed. If the axes and bills enter the hills and forests only at the proper time, the wood will be
276 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
more than can be used. When the grain and fish and turtles are more than can be eaten, and there is more wood than can be used, this enables the people to nourish their living and bury their dead, without any feeling against any. This con dition, in which the people nourish their living and bury their dead without any feeling against any, is the first step of royal government.
" Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five mow, and persons of fifty years may be clothed with silk. In keeping fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be neglected, and persons of seventy years may eat flesh. Let there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the farm with its hundred mow, and the family of several mouths that is supported by it shall not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to education in schools, inculcating in it especially the filial and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It never has been that the ruler of a state where such results were seen — persons of seventy wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering neither from hunger nor cold — did not attain to the imperial dignity.
" Your dogs and swine eat the food of men, and you do not know to make any restrictive arrangements. There are people dying from hunger on the roads, and you do not know to issue the stores of your granaries for them. When people die you say,'Itisnotowingtome; itisowingtotheyear. ' Inwhat does this differ from stabbing a man and killing him, and then
'
empire the people will come to you. "
King Hwuy of Leang said : " There was not in the empire
saying, ' It was not I
; it was the weapon ?
cease to lay the blame on the year, and instantly from all the
a stronger state than Tsin, as you, venerable Sir, know. But since it descended to me, on the east we have been defeated by Ts'e, and then my eldest son perished ; on the west we have lost seven hundred li of territory to Ts'in ; and on the south we have sustained disgrace at the hands of Ts'oo. I have brought shame on my departed predecessors, and wish on their account to wipe it away, once for all. What course is to be pursued to accomplish this ? "
Mencius replied, " With a territory which is only a hundred li square, it is possible to attain the imperial dignity.
Let your Majesty
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT. 277
" If your Majesty will indeed dispense a benevolent govern ment to the people, being sparing in the use of punishments and fines, and making the taxes and levies light, so causing that the field shall be plowed deep, and the weeding of them be carefully attended to, and that the strong-bodied, during their days of leisure, shall cultivate their filial piety, fraternal respectfulness, sincerity, and truthfulness, serving thereby, at home, their fathers and elder brothers, and abroad, their elders and superiors, you will then have a people who can be employed, with sticks which they have prepared, to oppose the strong mail and sharp weapons of the troops of Ts'in and Ts'oo.
"The rulers of those states rob their people of their time, so that they cannot plow and weed their fields in order to support their parents. Their parents suffer from cold and hunger. Brothers, wives, and children are separated and scattered abroad.
" Those rulers, as it were, drive their people into pitfalls or drown them. Your Majesty will go to punish them. In such a case, who will oppose your Majesty ?
" In accordance with this is the saying, ' The benevolent has no enemy. ' I beg your Majesty not to doubt what I say. "
Mencius went to see the King Seang of Leang.
On coming out from the interview, he said to some persons : " When I looked at him from a distance, he did not appear like a sovereign ; when I drew near to him, I saw nothing venerable about him. Abruptly he asked me, ' How can the empire be settled? ' I replied, 'It will be settled by being united under one sway. '
'
"'Whocan giveittohim? '
" I replied : ' All the people of the empire will unanimously give it to him. Does your Majesty understand the way of the growing grain ? During the seventh and eighth months, when drought prevails, the plants become dry. Then the clouds col lect densely in the heavens, they send down torrents of rain, and the grain erects itself, as if by a shoot. When it does so, who can keep it back? Now among the shepherds of men throughout the empire, if there were one who did not find
" ' Who can so unite it?
" I replied, ' He who has no pleasure in killing men can so unite it. '
278 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
pleasure in killing men, all the people in the empire would look towards him with outstretched necks. Such being, indeed, the case, the people would flock to him, as water flows down wards with a rush, which no one can repress. ' "
The King Seuen of Ts'e asked, saying, " May I be informed by you of the transactions of Hwan of Ts'e and Wan of
Ts'in? " " Mencius replied :
There were none of the disciples of Chun- que who spoke about the affairs of Hwan and Wan, and there
fore they have not been transmitted to these after ages, — your servant has not heard them. If you will have me speak, let it be about imperial government. "
The king said, " What virtue must there be in order to the attainment of imperial sway ? " Mencius answered, " The love and protection of the people ; with this there is no power which can prevent a ruler from attaining it. "
The king asked again, " Is such an one as I competent to love and protect the people? " Mencius said, "Yes. " " From
what do you know that I am competent to that ? "
the following incident from Hoo Heih : ' The king,' said he, ' was sitting aloft in the hall, when a man appeared, leading an
ox past the lower part of it. The king saw him, and asked, Where is the ox going ? The man replied, We are going to con secrate a hell with its blood. The king said, Let it go. I can not bear its frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the place of death. The man answered, Shall we then omit the consecration of the hell? The king said, How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep. ' I do not know whether this incident really occurred. "
The king replied, " It did," and then Mencius said, " The heart seen in this is sufficient to carry you to the imperial sway. The people all supposed that your Majesty grudged the animal, but your servant knows surely that it was your Majesty's not being able to bear the sight, which made you do as you did. " "
You are right. And yet there really was
The king said,
an appearance of what the people condemned. But though Ts'e be a small and narrow state, how should I grudge one ox? Indeed it was because I could not bear its frightened ap pearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the place of death, that therefore I changed it for a sheep. "
"
I heard
THE ART OF GOVERNMENT. 279
Mencius pursued, " Let not your Majesty deem it strange that the people should think you were grudging the animal. When you changed a large one for a small, how should they know the true reason? If you felt pained by its being led without guilt to the place of death, what was there to choose between an ox and a sheep ? "
I did not grudge the expense of it, and changed
it for a sheep ! There was reason in the people's saying that I
grudged it. "
" "There is no harm in their saying so," said Mencius.
Your conduct was an artifice of benevolence. You saw the ox, and had not seen the sheep.
So is the superior man affected towards animals, that, having seen them alive, he cannot bear to see them die ; having heard their dying cries he cannot bear to eat their flesh. Therefore, he keeps away from his cook- room. " " '
The king was pleased, and said, It is said in the Book of Poetry,' 'The minds of others, I am able by reflection to measure ; ' this is verified, my master, in your discovery of my motive. I indeed did the thing, but when I turned my thoughts inward, and examined into it, I could not discover my own mind, when you, Master, spoke those words, the movements of compassion began to work in my mind. How is it that this heart has in it what is equal to the imperial sway ? "
Mencius replied, " Suppose a man were to make this state ment to your Majesty : ' My strength is sufficient to lift three thousand catties, but it is not sufficient to lift one feather; my eyesight is sharp enough to examine the point of an autumn hair, but I do not see a wagonload of fagots ; ' would your Majesty allow what he said ? " " No," was the answer, on which Mencius proceeded, "Now here is kindness sufficient to reach to animals, and no benefits are extended from it to the people. How is this? Is an exception to be made here? The truth is, the feather's not being lifted is because the strength is not used ; the wagonload of firewood's not being seen is because the vision is not used ; and the people's not being loved and protected is because the kind ness is not employed. Therefore your Majesty's not exercising the imperial sway is because you do not do it, not because you are not able to do it. "
The king laughed and said, " What really was my mind in
the matter?
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The king asked, " How may the difference between the not doing a thing and the not being able to do it, be represented ? " Mencius replied : " In such a thing as taking the T'ae Moun tain under your arm, and leaping over the North Sea with it, if you say to your people, ' I am not able to do it,' that is a real case of not being able. In such a matter as breaking off a branch from a tree at the order of a superior, if you say to people, ' I am not able to do it,' that is a case of not doing it, it is not a case of not being able to do it. Therefore your Maj esty's not exercising the imperial sway is not such a case as that of taking the T'ae Mountain under your arm, and leaping over the North Sea with it. Your Majesty's not exercising the imperial sway is a case like that of breaking off a branch from a tree.
" Treat with the reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that the elders in the families of others shall be simi larly treated ; treat with the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that the young in the families of others shall be similarly treated ; do this, and the empire may be made to go round in your palm. It is said in the ' Book of Poetry,' ' His example affected his wife. It reached to his brothers, and his family of the state was governed by it. ' The language shows how King Wan simply took this kindly heart, and exercised it towards those parties. Therefore, the carrying out his kindly heart by a prince will suffice for the love and protection of all within the four seas, and if he do not carry it out, he will not be able to protect his wife and children. The way in which the ancients came greatly to surpass other men was no other than this, — simply that they knew how to carry out, so as to affect others, what they themselves did. Now, your kindness is sufficient to reach to animals, and no benefits are extended from it to reach the people. How is this ? Is an exception to be made here ?
" By weighing, we know what things are light, and what heavy. By measuring we know what things are long, and what short. The relations of all things may be thus deter mined, and it is of the greatest importance to estimate the motions of the mind. I beg your Majesty to measure it.
" You collect your equipments of war, endanger your sol diers and officers, and excite the resentment of the other princes : do these things cause you pleasure in your mind ? "
The king laughed, and did not speak. Mencius resumed :
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" Are you led to desire it because you have not enough of rich and sweet food for your mouth ? Or because you have not enough of light and warm clothing for your body? Or because you have not enow of beautifully colored objects to delight your eyes ? Or because you have not voices and tones enow to please your ears ? Or because you have not enow of attendants and favorites to stand before you and receive your orders ? Your Majesty's various officers are sufficient to sup ply you with those things. How can your Majesty be led to entertain such a desire on account of them ? " " No," said the king; "my desire is not on account of them. " Mencius added, " Then, what your Majesty greatly desires may be known. You wish to enlarge your territories, to have Ts'in and Ts'oo wait at your court, to rule the Middle Kingdom, and to attract to you the barbarous tribes that surround it. But to do what you do to seek for what you desire is like climbing a tree to seek for fish. " "
The king said, "Is it so bad as that?
was the reply. " If you climb a tree to seek for fish, although you do not get the fish, you will not suffer any subsequent calamity. But if you do what you do to seek for what you desire, doing it moreover with all your heart, you will as suredly afterwards meet with calamities. " The king asked, " May I hear from you the proof of that ? " Mencius said, " If the people of Tsow should fight with the people of Ts'oo, which of them does your Majesty think would conquer ? " "The people of Ts'oo could conquer. " "Yes; — and so it is certain that a small country cannot contend with a great, that few cannot contend with many, that the weak cannot contend with the strong. The territory within the four seas embraces nine divisions, each of a thousand li square. All Ts'e to gether is but one of them. If with one part you try to subdue the other eight, what is the difference between that and Tsow's contending with Ts'oo ? For, with the desire which you have, you must likewise turn back to the radical course for its attainment.
" Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action shall all be benevolent, this will cause all the officers in the empire to wish to stand in your Majesty's court, and the farmers all to wish to plow in your Majesty's fields, and the merchants, both traveling and stationary, all to wish to store their goods in your Majesty's market places, and traveling
"Itis even worse,"
282 THE ART OF GOVERNMENT.
strangers all to wish to make their tours on your Majesty's roads, and all throughout the empire who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come and complain to your Majesty. And when they are so bent, who will be able to keep them back? " "
I am stupid, and not able to advance to this. I wish you, my master, to assist my intentions. Teach me clearly ; although I am deficient in intelligence and vigor, I
The king said,
will essay and try to carry your instructions into effect. " Mencius replied, "They are only men of education, who,
without a certain livelihood, are able to maintain a fixed heart. As to the people, if they have not a certain livelihood, it follows that they will not have a fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which they will not do, in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of depravity, and of wild license. When they thus have been involved in crime, to follow them up and punish them, — this is to entrap the people. How can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a benevolent man ?
" Therefore an intelligent ruler will regulate the livelihood of the people, so as to make sure that, above, they shall have sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and, below, suffi cient wherewith to support their wives and children ; that in good years they shall always be abundantly satisfied, and that in bad years they shall escape the danger of perishing. After this he may urge them, and they will proceed to what is good, for in this case the people will follow after that with ease.
"Now, the livelihood of the people is so regulated that, above, they have not sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and below, they have not sufficient wherewith to support their wives and children. Notwithstanding good years, their lives are continually embittered, and, in bad years, they do not escape perishing. In such circumstances they only try to save them selves from death, and are afraid they will not succeed. What leisure have they to cultivate propriety and righteousness ?
" If your Majesty wishes to effect this regulation of the livelihood of the people, why not turn to that which is the essential step to it ?
" Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five mow, and persons of fifty years may be clothed with silk. In keeping fowls, pigs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be neglected, and persons of seventy years may eat
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flesh. Let there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of the farm with its hundred mow, and the family of eight mouths that is supported by it shall not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to education in schools, — the inculcation in it especially of the filial and fra ternal duties, and gray -haired men will not be seen upon the roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It never has been that the ruler of a state where such results were seen, — the old wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering neither from hunger nor cold, — did not attain to the imperial dignity. "
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Translated and Abridged by Sir MONIER MONIER-WILLIAMS.
[Sir Monier Monier- Williams : A leading Anglo-Indian lexicographer and Orientalist ; born at Bombay, India, November 12, 1819 ; died 1889. From 1860 on he was professor of Sanskrit in Oxford. He published several Sanskrit dictionaries, a Sanskrit and a Hindustani grammar; "Indian Epic Poetry" (1863), "Indian Wisdom" (1875), "Hinduism" (1877), "Modern India and the Indians" (1878), "Buddhism," etc. , 1889. ]
[The earliest extant Sanskrit drama : attributed to King Sudraka, who is sometimes said to have reigned in the first or second century B. C. ; but the play in fact is probably not much earlier than the fifth century a. d. , and by some playwright who judiciously gave the king the honor. ]
The first scene represents a court in front of Caru-datta's house. His friend Maitreya — who, although a Brahman, acts the part of a sort of jovial companion, and displays a disposi tion of mixed shrewdness and simplicity — laments Caru-datta's fallen fortunes, caused by his too great liberality.
replies thus : —
Carurdatta —
Think not, my friend, I mourn departed wealth : One thing alone torments me, — that my guests Desert my beggared house, like to the bees
That swarm around the elephant, when dews Exhale from his broad front ; but quickly leave His dried-up temples when they yield no sweets.
Caru-datta
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Maitreya — The sons of slaves! These guests you speak of are always ready to make a morning meal off a man's property.
Caru-datta —
It is most true, but I bestow no thought
On my lost property, — as fate decrees — Wealth comes and goes ; but this is torture to me, That friendships I thought firm hang all relaxed And loose, when poverty sticks closest to me.
From poverty 'tis but a step to shame —
From shame to loss of manly self-respect ;
Then comes disdainful scorn, then dark despair O'erwhelms the mind with melancholy thoughts, Then reason goes, and last of all comes ruin.
Oh ! poverty is source of every ill.
Maitreya — Ah well, cheer up ! Let's have no more of these woe begone memories. What's lost can't be recovered.
Caru-datta —I will grieve no more. Go you, my friend, Good !
And offer this oblation, just prepared,
Unto the gods, and mothers of us all.
Maitreya —Not I.
Caru-datta — And why not, pray?
Maitreya —Why, what's the use, when the gods you have wor
shiped have done nothing for you ? Caru-datta —
Friend, speak not thus, for worship is the duty Of every family ; the gods are honored
By offerings, and gratified by acts
Of penance and restraint in thought and word. Therefore, delay not to present the oblation.
Maitreya — I don't intend to go; send some one else. Caru-datta —
Stay quiet then for a little, till I have finished My religious meditations and prayer.
They are supposed here to retire, and a voice is heard be hind the scenes : —
Stop ! Vasanta-sena, stop !
The heroine of the play now appears in front of Caru- datta's house, pursued by the king's worthless but wealthy brother-in-law, called Samsthanaka, who is an embodiment of everything vicious and mean, in exact contrast to Caru-datta.
Samsthanaka — Stop! Vasanta-sena, stop! Why do you run away ? Don't be alarmed. I am not going to kill you. My poor
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heart is on fire with love, like a piece of meat placed on a heap of burning coals.
Vasanta-sena — Noble sir, I am only a weak woman. Samstlianaka — That is just why I don't intend murdering you. Vasanta-sena — Why then do you pursue me ? Do you seek my
jewels ?
Samsthandka — No, I only seek to gain your affections.
At this point the frightened Vasanta-sena discovers that she is close to Caru-datta's house. He is not only loved by her, but greatly respected as a man of honor ; and under cover of the evening darkness, now supposed to have supervened, she slips into the courtyard of his house by a side door, and hides herself. A companion who is with the king's brother now counsels him to desist from following her, by remarking: —
An elephant is bound by a chain,
A horse is curbed by a bridle and rein ; — But a woman is only held by her heart
If you can't hold that, you had better depart.
Samsthanaka, however, forces his way into Caru-datta's house ; and there finding Caru-datta's friend and companion Maitreya, thus addresses him: —
Take this message to Caru-datta. — Vasanta-sena loves you, and has taken refuge in your house. If you will deliver her up, you shall be rewarded by my everlasting friendship; if not, I shall remain your enemy till death. Give this message, so that I may hear you from the neighboring terrace; refuse to say exactly what I have told you, and I will crush your head as I would a wood apple beneath a door.
He then leaves the stage.
Maitreya accordingly delivers the message. Soon after wards the heroine Vasanta-sena ventures into the presence of Caru-datta, asks pardon for intruding into his house, requests him to take charge of a golden casket containing her ornaments as a deposit left in trust, and solicits his friend's escort back to her own house.
Maitreya is too much alarmed to accompany her, so Caru- datta himself escorts Vasanta-sena home.
So far is an epitome of the first act.
At the commencement of the second act a gambler is intro duced running away from the keeper of a gaming house, named
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Mathura, and another gambler to whom the first gambler has lost money, who are both pursuing him.
First Gambler — The master of the tables and the gamester are at my heels : how can I escape them ? Here is an empty temple: I will enter it walking backwards, and pretend to be its idol.
Mathura — Ho there ! stop, thief ! A gambler has lost ten suvar- nas, and is running off without paying. Stop him, stop him !
Second Gambler — He has run as far as this point ; but here the
They enter and make signs to each other on discovering the object of their search, who pretends to be an idol fixed on a pedestal.
track is lost. — Mathura Ah !
I see, — the footsteps are reversed : the rogue has walked backwards into this temple which has no image in it.
Second Gambler — Is this a wooden image, I wonder?
Mathura — No, no, it must be made of stone, I think. [So say ing, they shake and pinch him. ] Never mind, sit we down here, and play out our game. [They commence playing. ]
First Gambler [still acting the image, but looking on and toith difficulty restraining his wish to join in the game. Aside] — The rat tling of dice is as tantalizing to a penniless man as the sound of drums to a dethroned monarch ; verily it is sweet as the note of a nightingale.
Second Gambler — The throw is mine, the throw is mine! Mathura — No, it is mine, I say.
First Gambler [forgetting himself and jumping off his pedestal] —
No, I tell you it is mine.
Second Gambler — We've caught him!
Mathura — Yes, rascal, you're caught at last: hand over the
suvarnas. — First Gambler
Worthy sir, I'll pay them in good time.
Mathura — Hand them over this very minute, I say. [ They beat
him. ]
First Gambler [aside to Second Gambler] — I'll pay you half if
you will forgive me the rest.
Second Gambler — Agreed.
First Gambler [aside to Mathura] — I'll give you security for
half if you will let me off the other half.
Mathura — Agreed.
First Gambler — Then good morning to you, sirs; I'm off.
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Mathura —Hullo! stop there, where are you going so fast? Hand over the money.
First Gambler — See here, my good sirs, one has taken security for half, and the other has let me off another half. Isn't it clear I have nothing to pay ?
Mathura —No, no, my fine fellow: my name is Mathura, and I'm not such a fool as you take me for. Don't suppose I'm going to be cheated out of my ten suvarnas in this way. Hand them over, you scoundrel.
Upon that they set to work beating the unfortunate gam bler, whose cries for help bring to his rescue another gamester who happens to be passing. A general scuffle now takes place, and in the midst of the confusion the first gambler escapes. In his flight he comes to the house of Vasanta-sena, and finding the door open, rushes in. Vasanta-sena inquires who he is and what he wants. He then recites his story, and makes known to her that having been once in the service of Caru-datta, and having been discharged by him on account of his reduced cir cumstances, he has been driven to seek a livelihood by gambling. The mention of Caru-datta at once secures Vasanta-sena's aid ; and the pursuers having now tracked their fugitive to the door of her house, she sends them out a jeweled bracelet, which satis fies their demands, and they retire. The gambler expresses the deepest gratitude, hopes in return to be of use to Vasanta-sena at some future time, and announces his intention of abandoning his disreputable mode of life and becoming a Buddhist mendicant.
The third act opens with a scene inside Caru-datta's house. The time is supposed to be night. Caru-datta and Maitreya are absent at a concert. A servant is preparing their sleeping couches, and commences talking to himself thus : —
A good master who is kind to his servants, even though he be poor, is their delight ; while a harsh fellow, who is always finding fault and has nothing but his money to be proud of, is a perpetual torment from morning to night. Well, well ! one can't alter nature ; an ox can't be kept out of a field of corn, and a man once addicted to gambling can't be induced to leave off. My good master has gone to a concert. I must await his return ; so I may as well take a nap in the hall.
Meanwhile Caru-datta and Maitreya come back, and the servant delivers Vasanta-sena's golden casket, saying that it is his turn to take charge of it by night. They now lie down.
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