) Cicero wrote De
Officiis
with his son in mind.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
and so through these various demands the city's prosperity was extended far and wide and shared among every age and condition in Athens.
So the buildings arose, as imposing in their sheer size as they were inimitable in the grace of their outlines, since the artists strove to excel themselves in the beauty of their workmanship. And yet the most wonderful thing about them was the speed with which they were com- pleted. Each of them, [it was thought], would take many generations to build, but in fact the entire project was carried through in the high summer of one man's [i. e. , Pericles's] administration . . . The director and supervisor of the whole enterprise was Pheidias, although there were various great architects and artists employed on the individual buildings. For example, Callicrates and Ictinus were the architects of the Parthenon [see sidebar] . . .
The Propylaea, or portals of the Acropolis, of which Mnesicles was the architect, were finished within the space of five years. While they were being built, a miraculous incident took place, which suggested that the goddess Athena herself, so far from standing aloof, was taking a hand and helping to complete the work. One of the work- men, the most active and energetic among them, slipped and fell from a great height. He lay for some time severely injured, and the doctors could hold out no hope that he would recover. Pericles was greatly distressed at this, but the goddess appeared to him in a dream and ordered a course of treatment, which he applied, with the result that the man was easily and quickly healed. It was to com- memorate this that Pericles set up the bronze statue of Athena the Healer near the altar dedicated to that goddess . . .
[Tr. Ian Scott-Kilvert. Plutarch: The Rise and Fall of Athens, Nine Greek Lives. (Pericles 12, 13. ) Penguin Classics, New York, 1960. Page numbers: 178, 179, 180, 181. ]
Workers Needed for Building the Parthenon
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? a small temple also in honor of Athena; numerous statues, altars, and other temples. Some of the early kings of Athens were said to have homes on the Acropolis, although the Acropolis was not pri- marily a residential area. On the south slope, there were two mag- nificent outdoor theaters, and a long portico. Adjacent to the larger of the two theaters was a recital hall for musical contests, the Odeon.
Also located on the Acropolis was a large rectangular building called the chalkotheke. Only traces of this structure remain today, and its purpose is uncertain, but it apparently served as a repository for objects made of bronze--its name is etymologically connected to the Greek word for bronze-- and it may also have been used as a treasury building.
Athena: The patron goddess of Athens and a deity whose name and image were well represented by the stat- ues and temples constructed on the Acropolis.
Callicrates and Ictinus: As Plutarch states, these two individuals were the architects of the Parthenon. Callicrates flourished during the Athenian Golden Age, although little is known of his life or of his other architectural projects, with one exception: the third Long Wall. There were originally two Long Walls, built ca. 461- 456 BCE, running parallel from Athens to its port cities, meant to provide the Athenians safe access to the sea in the event of an attack. A third Long Wall, between the first two, was built under the supervision of Callicrates, around 455. Ictinus was most famous for his work on the Parthenon, but he
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? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? was also noted as the primary architect of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, in Arcadia, in the central Peloponnesus. The travel writer Pausanias notes that this building was considered one the most beautiful temples in all of the Peloponnesus, second only to the Temple of Athena at Tegea, designed by another noted sculp- tor, Scopas, who flourished in the fourth century BCE.
Interestingly, the names of Pheidias and Ictinus (although not Callicrates), along with many others, are carved into the frieze surrounding the perimeter of the Art Institute in Chicago.
doctors: Plutarch does not provide the names of the physicians, but it is interesting to speculate that physi- cians were apparently on site, or at least on call, to treat injuries suf- fered by the workers. And acci- dents like the one described in the document probably happened with some regularity; construction zones are inherently risky places even now, but in the fifth century, with- out regulations or policies specifi- cally protecting the workforce, they must have been even more dangerous.
Mnesicles: A fifth-century BCE architect about whom nothing is known except what Plutarch conveys to us in the document: that he was the designer of the Propylaea.
Pheidias: The famous sculptor- architect is thought to have been born ca. 490 BCE and to have died in 432. He was, and is, generally considered the best artisan of his time, high praise indeed when one considers the great number of artists flourishing during that era. His reputation primarily rests on
? ? ? AFTERMATH
Unfortunately, the Athenian Golden Age was brought to a crashing halt by two chief factors from which the Athenians never really recovered. The first of these was the death of Pericles from the highly contagious, and usually fatal, plague that swept through Athens around 430 and the following years. Pericles died around 429. Although a popular leader for many years, he had his share of enemies, too, and they were never shy about leveling angry criti- cisms at him, for almost all of his policy decisions.
The second factor was the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), the long and bitter conflict between the city-states of Athens and Sparta, an event that permanently derailed further intellectual and creative achievements in Athens. It is certainly true that Athens did not cease to exist after the war, and noted Athenian philosophers, scientists, writers, and orators flourished in the cen- turies to come. But it also seems safe to say that Athens never recaptured the heights to which it had risen in its fifth-century Golden Age.
ASK YOURSELF
1. As mentioned earlier (in "Keep in Mind as You Read"), Pericles siphoned off large sums of money from the Delian League treasury to pay for the labor and materials required to construct the expensive buildings. Was he justi- fied in doing so? Were his critics right to complain about what he did?
2. Large, impressive, expensive buildings are often built as dis- plays of power, as landmarks that enable a city to flaunt its wealth, and as sources of civic pride. Would the Parthenon have been an example of Athenian power, wealth, and pride? Would there have been other advantages for Athens in having a building of this magnitude in the city? After all, it was no accident that this huge temple was con- structed at the very top of one of the highest elevations in all of Athens!
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e ConsiderPericles'sbeautification-of-Athensplans. One of his motives in devising and promoting his ambitious building plan was apparently to provide jobs for people who were unemployed or under- employed. Politicians today often try to do the same thing. Can you find other examples in ancient history, or in western history generally, in which these kinds of full-employment programs
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were tried? How successful were they? What crite- ria could we use to determine whether Pericles succeeded?
e Consider the anecdote about the worker who was injured on the job: What kinds of conclusions or inferences can we draw from it? For example: How dangerous was it to "work construction" in the ancient world? How skilled or proficient was the medical profession in treating work-related injuries?
e Withregardtothatinjuredworker,Plutarchstates that "the goddess [Athena] appeared to him [Pericles] in a dream and ordered a course of treat- ment, which he applied, with the result that the man was easily and quickly healed. " Today, this explanation for the healing might seem a little, or a lot, far-fetched. Is it possible, however, that the ancient Athenians believed it? If Pericles merely made up the story about Athena appearing to him in a dream, why do you suppose he would have done that? What advantages would it bring, or what would he gain from it? Can you think of modern examples in which political or religious leaders claim to have visions or messages from God about a particular course of action?
Further Information
Kagan, Donald. Pericles of Athens and the Birth of Democracy. New York, 1991.
Ober, Josiah. The Athenian Revolution. Princeton, NJ, 1996. Website
438 B. C. Pericles Triumphant. http://www. pbs. org/empires/ thegreeks/characters/pericles_p8. html
Bibliography for Document
Scott-Kilvert, Ian (tr. ). Plutarch: The Rise and Fall of Athens; Nine Greek Lives. Penguin Classics. New York, 1960.
Workers Needed for Building the Parthenon
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? three of his greatest sculptures: the Athena Promachus, the statue of Athena in the Parthenon, and the statue of Zeus at Olympia. The Athena Promachus--like the Parthenon--was erected on the Acropolis. Pheidias created a pol- ished spear and shining helmet for the bronze, colossal statue. It was said that the glint of the sunlight on the spear point and the helmet crest could be seen from miles away. Pheidias's Olympian Zeus was considered not only his best work but the best ever created by any ancient Greek sculptor. It was a chryselephantine statue (like the Athena in the Parthenon), mas- sively made--over 60 feet tall-- and seated on a heavily decorated throne. The statue was so impres- sive that it was regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Propylaea: The Athenian Propylaea, built in the 430s, was an elabo- rately designed and constructed entryway to the Acropolis. It con- tained five doors: one for pro- cessions and their necessary com- ponents, such as wagons pulled by animals, and four other doors reserved for the general public. The Propylaea was also outfitted with auxiliary buildings, one on each end. One of these was used as a kind of picture gallery.
strove to excel themselves: Ancient Greek artists--like most typical ancient Greeks--loved to compete with one another to determine which of them could produce the best works of art.
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? ? ? ? A HOME FIT FOR A GODDESS
The Parthenon is perhaps the most recognizable landmark in all of ancient Athens. Photos of it have probably appeared in more travel brochures, more feature newspaper articles, more history books, and on more Internet sites than any other ancient building. And why not? It came to symbolize the power and the wealth of the Golden Age of Athens under Pericles's inspired leadership.
The word derives from the Greek parthenos, meaning "young girl," one of the chief epithets of the goddess Athena, in whose honor the Parthenon was built. Located at the top of the Acropolis (see glossary, above), it was a massive rectangular structure, so large that it could reportedly be seen by sailors on ships in the Mediterranean Sea, from 20 miles or more away. Its exterior featured 34-foot-tall Doric columns, 17 of them on the two long sides of the building, 8 on the short sides. (By contrast, typical rectangular temples generally featured 13 columns on the long sides and 6 on the two ends. ) The columns were ingeniously designed in such a way that they bulged very slightly in the middle and tilted very slightly toward one another. The Greek architects were trying to create an optical illusion with this bulging and tilting; they knew that from a great distance, a curved line looks straight, and a straight line looks curved. They wanted the columns to appear to be perfectly straight when viewed by those sailors on the sea and by others who might be seeing the building from a distance.
Perhaps the most stunning feature of the temple was the magnificent statue of Athena, placed on the inside of the building. Standing some 40 feet tall, created by the super-talented sculptor-architect Pheidias, it was a chryselephantine (gold and ivory) colossus. The gold alone that it contained has been estimated to have been worth 44 talents, equivalent to approximately $13 million (see the following sidebar). Some archaeologists believe the statue's great height required a sort of skylight to be carved into the roof of the Parthenon to accom- modate it; otherwise, it would not have fit inside the building.
? ? ? ? ? ? ANCIENT GREEK MONEY
Greek money in Pericles's day was divided into four basic denominations: obols, drachmas, minas, and talents; the latter two were never minted. The drachma seems to have been the basis of the monetary system, much like the dollar in modern American currency. So the question arises: how much, in American dollars, was the drachma worth?
First, some equivalencies: six obols 1/4 one drachma
100 drachmas 1/4 one mina
6,000 drachmas 1/4 one talent
It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine the exact dollar amount for one drachma. But educated
guesses are possible. For example, it appears that one drachma was about the average daily income for a middle-class, employed Athenian in the fifth century BCE. If we assume an approximate contemporary mini- mum wage of $6. 00/hour, and an eight-hour workday, then we might suggest a value of $50 (rounded up from $48) for one Athenian drachma. (If this calculation is even roughly accurate, it then becomes apparent why the Athenians never minted one-talent coins. A one-talent coin would have been worth $300,000. Where, and on what, would such a coin be spent? What merchant could make change for it? )
Hence, 44 talents for the gold in the statue of Athena would be equivalent to $13,200,000. The overall cost of the Parthenon has been estimated at a stupendous 5,000 talents, or about one and a half billion dollars, a staggering sum even by today's standards, surpassing the price tag even of a modern sports palace like Yankee Stadium. A couple of factors that drove the cost so high: the expense of the building materials (only top-quality marble was used) and the labor costs. The document has revealed how many people were employed generally in the Athenian Golden Age, and certainly a good many of these workers were assigned to Parthenon construction. And of course, they all had to be paid.
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12. CICERO ADVISES HIS SON ON A RIGHT AND PROPER CAREER
INTRODUCTION
The orator/statesman/lawyer Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) produced a tremendous output of written works during his lifetime, including many philosophical treatises. Among these is his De Officiis, or On Duties.
Cicero's public life had taken a very gradual decline after his consulship in 63 BCE, and in the 50s and 40s, he turned increasingly to thinking about, studying, and writing philosophy. De Officiis, penned about 45 BCE, is the last, and possibly best, of his 15 philosophical tracts. The piece is addressed to his 21-year-old son (also named Marcus Tullius Cicero), who was at the time in Athens studying with the noted philosopher Cratippus. (The elder Cicero was apparently acquainted with Cratippus and even used his influence to help him gain Roman citizenship.
) Cicero wrote De Officiis with his son in mind.
Sadly, at the very end of the book, Cicero expressed his hope that he and his son could discuss in person the issues raised in it, but he never saw his son again. The famed orator was killed in the proscriptions of late 43 BCE.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Cicero, as an educated and sophisticated Roman gentleman, had a sort of benign contempt for people he considered beneath his social status, especially manual laborers such as "fishmongers, butchers, cooks, poulterers, and fishermen. " Interestingly, however, he professes a high regard for those engaged in agriculture (although he probably refers in the document to the owners and managers of the farms, not the field workers).
2. Cicero, and many Romans of his rank in society, looked down upon professions, and their practitioners, that today are held in (mostly) high esteem: actors, physi- cians, architects, and athletes, for example. This disconnect is especially striking in the case of charioteers and gladiators. Romans of all social classes flocked to the amphitheaters and the racetracks in huge numbers; the great chariot-racing venue in Rome, the Circus Maximus, is estimated to have had a seating capacity in excess of 250,000. But these same rabid spectators would have considered individual glad- iators and charioteers a contemptible lot.
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? Document: Cicero's Advice to His Son
Now in regard to trades and other means of livelihood, which ones are to be considered becoming to a gentleman and which ones are vulgar, we have been taught, in gen- eral, as follows. First, those means of livelihood are rejected as undesirable which incur people's ill-will, as those of tax- gatherers and usurers. Unbecoming to a gentleman, too, and vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired work- men whom we pay for mere manual labor, not for artistic skill; for in their case, the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery. Vulgar we must consider those also who buy from wholesale merchants to retail immediately, for they would get no profits without a great deal of outright lying. And verily, there is no action that is meaner than misrepresentation. And all mechanics are engaged in vulgar trades, for no workshop can have anything liberal about it. Least respectable of all are those trades which cater for sensual pleasures: "Fishmongers, butchers, cooks, and poulterers, and fishermen. " [A quotation from the play Eunuch, by the Roman playwright Terence, ca. 195-159 BCE. ] Add to these, if you please, the perfumers, dancers, and the whole corps de ballet.
But the professions in which either a higher degree of intelligence is required or from which no small benefit to society is derived--medicine and architecture, for exam- ple, and teaching--these are proper for those whose social position they become. Trade, if it is on a small scale, is to be considered vulgar. But if wholesale and on a large scale, importing large quantities from all parts of the world, and distributing to many without misrepresentation, it is not to be greatly disparaged. It even seems to deserve the high- est respect, if those who are engaged in it, satiated, or rather, I should say, satisfied with the fortunes they have made, make their way from the port to a country estate, as they have often made it from the sea into port. But of all the occupations by which gain is secured, none is better than agriculture, none more profitable, none more delightful, none more becoming to a free man. [Tr. Walter Miller. Cicero: De Officiis (1. 150. ) LCL, 1913. Page numbers: 153, 155. ]
AFTERMATH
As noted earlier, Cicero is thought to have written this philosophical tract around 45 BCE, near the end of his long and distinguished career in Roman public and intellectual life. De Officiis was his penultimate published work; only the Philippics, a series of 14
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? corps de ballet: Cicero again enumera- tes a list of disreputable occupa- tions, culminating with the corps de ballet, or in Latin, ludus talar- ius, a kind of melodramatic vaude- ville show, often with bad acting, bad singing, and bad dancing. Cicero here is denigrating the actors who participate in such displays.
fishmongers, butchers, cooks, poul- terers, fishermen: It is not exactly clear why Cicero, or Terence for that matter, would consider these sorts of occupations the "least respectable," or why workers engaged in these occupations would be founts of lies and misrepresenta- tions. It could be that the market- places where these goods were sold sometimes harbored unsavory characters--thieves, pickpockets, muggers--and so the reputations of even the honest tradesmen were thereby besmirched.
liberal: This word is not to be under- stood with the modern political connotations. As used in the document, its etymological con- nection to the Latin word liber, "free," helps to define it: occupa- tions that are worthy of a free Roman citizen or those "becoming to a gentleman. "
Terence: (Full Roman name: Publius Terentius Afer. ) The Roman play- wright Terence wrote six plays; all survive. Eunuch (161 BCE) recounts the story of a love triangle involv- ing an Athenian youth, a courte- san, and a soldier.
vulgar: The Latin word, which has been translated as "vulgar," is sor- didus, a word of many and varied
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speeches directed mostly at his hated rival Mark Antony, appeared later. Crossing Mark Antony was not a wise thing to do; his influ- ence was on the rise in the 40s as Cicero's declined. For the last 18 months of his life, Cicero was reduced to not much more than a fugitive, wandering across Italy. (Fortunately, he owned several properties at various places, so presumably he was able to find accommodations. ) When he was eventually tracked down and mur- dered, in December of 43, his severed head and hands were put on public display, apparently at the behest of Mark Antony.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why do you suppose Cicero believed that fishermen, butchers, cooks, and chicken farmers engaged in professions that "cater[ed to] sensual pleasures"? Why would he have considered basic foods such as fish, meat, and poultry to be somehow linked to sensual pleasures?
2. Cicero does not explicitly urge his son not to earn his livelihood in any of the occu- pations that he scorns in the document. Do you think, however, that this is the implicit message?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e How would you feel if a parent or other close relative sent you a book- length letter (the De Officiis is several hundred pages long) filled with admonitions, career counseling, injunctions, and other advice that might seem a bit inappropriate? We do not know how the young Cicero felt about his father's many words of advice, but could you speculate about his reaction?
Cicero Advises His Son on a Right and Proper Career
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? meanings. In this context, its sense is one of impropriety; these occupations are not worthy of an honorable person. Note the con- trast to occupations "becoming to a gentleman. "
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? TWO ACTORS WHO ROSE ABOVE IT
Cicero (as we have seen) and other respectable Roman gentlemen and ladies were cynically contemptuous of those who took up the acting profession. But the orator/educator Quintilian (ca. 35-95 CE) relates the stories of two actors who seemed to be universally appreciated for their talents, Demetrius and Stratocles: "[T]he one [Demetrius] was at his best in the roles of gods, young men, good fathers and slaves, matrons and respectable old women [male actors played both male and female roles], while the other [Stratocles] excelled in the portrayal of sharp-tempered old men, cunning slaves, parasites, pimps, and all the more lively characters of comedy. " [Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory 11. 3; tr. Butler. ] Quintilian states that both actors had strong voices, but each one also had his own unique talents. Demetrius possessed a pair of extremely expressive hands, a manner or power of speech that charmed his audiences, and an ability to make his costumes "seem to puff out with wind as he walked. " It helped that he was a tall and handsome man, advantages that successful modern actors also enjoy!
Stratocles had the ability to move quickly and with great agility, and an infectious laughter that he some- times employed at unexpected or inappropriate places in the play, just to get the audience to laugh along with him. He also was able to manipulate his head and neck in such a way that it seemed as if the former were sinking into the latter.
Quintilian notes that if either man had tried to incorporate the other one's idiosyncrasies into his own ver- bal and physical repertoire, he would have failed as an actor.
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? ? ? ? TRIMALCHIO'S COOK AND OTHER PROFESSIONS
In his satirical book Satyricon, the Roman novelist Petronius (d. ca. 65 CE) described an outlandish dinner party given by the obnoxious and filthy-rich Trimalchio. Trimalchio had a (usually misguided) opinion on every sub- ject imaginable, including the art of cooking. In a memorable scene from the book, a waiter carried into the din- ing room a huge roast pig and placed it before the dinner guests. Trimalchio was pleased at first, but then he began to look more closely at the pig and discovered that it had not been gutted. Furious, he demanded that the cook come out of the kitchen and answer for this unforgivable act of forgetfulness. When the cook appeared, all nervous and contrite, Trimalchio was about to order that he be horsewhipped. But the diners interceded on his behalf and begged Trimalchio to rescind the punishment; accidents happen! Trimalchio smiled and re- lented, and instructed the cook to gut the pig right then and there, in full view of all. As the cook complied, and went to work with his carving knife, sausages and blood-puddings tumbled out of the pig's belly. Everyone cheered, and the cook--who only moments before had faced the unhappy prospect of a beating-- was rewarded with a drink, a silver coin, and an expensive goblet.
Elsewhere in the story, Trimalchio ranks some of the professions according to the degree of difficulty. He considers the writing of literature the most challenging. After that come medicine and banking.
Cicero evaluated various professions not only in the document, but elsewhere in his writings. Consider these comments, from his philosophical essay On Divination [1. 24]: Doctors, for example, practice the art of medicine, but make many mistakes. Captains of sailing vessels are also capable of errors in judgment; for exam- ple, when the Greek fleet finally sailed away from Troy after 10 long years of warfare, their euphoria over leaving got in the way of their good sense. They gazed at the scenery, daydreamed, unmindful of a coming storm. Military generals, too, make bad and costly decisions. Politicians are not exempt from fallibility; Cicero gallantly notes that even he had made a mistake or two over the previous 40 years! All these examples were adduced in order to demonstrate that soothsayers should not be overly criticized because of an occasional incorrect proph- ecy, because most of the time, their proclamations are reliable.
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e The Christian author Tertullian (ca. 160-225 CE) wrote a treatise entitled De Spectaculis (Concerning Spectacles) in which he sharply criticized the atti- tude of the Roman populace toward charioteers and gladiators, and in par- ticular, their love of the games and shows, but their contempt for the individual athletes. Why do you suppose this double standard existed? Can you think of any examples in modern sports--or in any other occupa- tion or profession--in which there is a similar double standard?
Further information
Cowell, F. R. Cicero and the Roman Republic. London, 1948. Stockton, David. Cicero: A Political Biography. Oxford, 1971.
Websites
Cicero: On Duties. http://bostonleadershipbuilders. com/cicero/duties/epitome. htm Cicero: On Duties. http://www. iep. utm. edu/cicero/#SH7s
Bibliography for Document
Glover, T. R. (tr. ). Tertullian: Apology; De Spectaculis. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1931.
Miller, Walter (tr. ). Cicero: De Officiis. [LCL. ] London and New York, 1913.
13. THE SKY IS NO LONGER THE LIMIT: DIOCLETIAN'S CAP ON WAGES AND PRICES
INTRODUCTION
At the close of the third century CE, the Roman Empire was facing some serious economic challenges, including runaway inflation. The emperor Diocletian (reigned 284-306 CE) attempted to address the problem by issuing an unprecedented decree limiting the prices for commodities and services, and also capping wages. This decree, the Edictum de maximis pretiis, or Edict Concerning Maximum Prices, was issued in 301. Penalties for violating the edict were severe: death or exile.
The document is remarkable for the detailed information it provides about the relative prices of consumer goods at the time, as well as the wage scale in effect for a large number of occupations and professions.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. This detailed document forms the longest continuous text pertaining to economic issues still surviving from the ancient world, either Greek or Roman.
2. In the years of Diocletian's reign prior to the issuance of the edict, he and his armies had been engaged in seemingly endless wars and in putting down revolts in various parts of the empire. The tremendous expense associated with these campaigns may well have been a major factor in the economic crisis that precipitated the need for a cap on wages and prices.
3. Military adventurism may not have been the only problem. The contemporary Christian writer Lactantius implies that Diocletian's ambitious building programs also played a part in bringing about the empire's economic woes: "he had a certain endless passion for building, and no small exactions from the provinces for maintain- ing laborers and artisans and for supplying wagons and whatever else was necessary for the construction of public works. Here basilicas, there a circus, here a mint, there a shop for making weapons, here a house for his wife, there one for his daughter. " [Lactantius. On the Deaths of the Persecutors vii; tr. Lewis and Reinhold. ]
4. Most of the specified maximum salaries are per day or per month, but some are cal- culated according to the number of clients served, (or animals, in the case of veterinarians).
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Document: An Ancient Roman Wage/Price Freeze
[Excerpts from the preamble:]
If the excesses perpetrated by persons of unlimited and frenzied avarice could be checked by some self-restraint--this avarice which rushes for gain and profit with no thought for mankind . . . or if the general welfare could endure without harm this riotous license by which . .
So the buildings arose, as imposing in their sheer size as they were inimitable in the grace of their outlines, since the artists strove to excel themselves in the beauty of their workmanship. And yet the most wonderful thing about them was the speed with which they were com- pleted. Each of them, [it was thought], would take many generations to build, but in fact the entire project was carried through in the high summer of one man's [i. e. , Pericles's] administration . . . The director and supervisor of the whole enterprise was Pheidias, although there were various great architects and artists employed on the individual buildings. For example, Callicrates and Ictinus were the architects of the Parthenon [see sidebar] . . .
The Propylaea, or portals of the Acropolis, of which Mnesicles was the architect, were finished within the space of five years. While they were being built, a miraculous incident took place, which suggested that the goddess Athena herself, so far from standing aloof, was taking a hand and helping to complete the work. One of the work- men, the most active and energetic among them, slipped and fell from a great height. He lay for some time severely injured, and the doctors could hold out no hope that he would recover. Pericles was greatly distressed at this, but the goddess appeared to him in a dream and ordered a course of treatment, which he applied, with the result that the man was easily and quickly healed. It was to com- memorate this that Pericles set up the bronze statue of Athena the Healer near the altar dedicated to that goddess . . .
[Tr. Ian Scott-Kilvert. Plutarch: The Rise and Fall of Athens, Nine Greek Lives. (Pericles 12, 13. ) Penguin Classics, New York, 1960. Page numbers: 178, 179, 180, 181. ]
Workers Needed for Building the Parthenon
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? a small temple also in honor of Athena; numerous statues, altars, and other temples. Some of the early kings of Athens were said to have homes on the Acropolis, although the Acropolis was not pri- marily a residential area. On the south slope, there were two mag- nificent outdoor theaters, and a long portico. Adjacent to the larger of the two theaters was a recital hall for musical contests, the Odeon.
Also located on the Acropolis was a large rectangular building called the chalkotheke. Only traces of this structure remain today, and its purpose is uncertain, but it apparently served as a repository for objects made of bronze--its name is etymologically connected to the Greek word for bronze-- and it may also have been used as a treasury building.
Athena: The patron goddess of Athens and a deity whose name and image were well represented by the stat- ues and temples constructed on the Acropolis.
Callicrates and Ictinus: As Plutarch states, these two individuals were the architects of the Parthenon. Callicrates flourished during the Athenian Golden Age, although little is known of his life or of his other architectural projects, with one exception: the third Long Wall. There were originally two Long Walls, built ca. 461- 456 BCE, running parallel from Athens to its port cities, meant to provide the Athenians safe access to the sea in the event of an attack. A third Long Wall, between the first two, was built under the supervision of Callicrates, around 455. Ictinus was most famous for his work on the Parthenon, but he
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? was also noted as the primary architect of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, in Arcadia, in the central Peloponnesus. The travel writer Pausanias notes that this building was considered one the most beautiful temples in all of the Peloponnesus, second only to the Temple of Athena at Tegea, designed by another noted sculp- tor, Scopas, who flourished in the fourth century BCE.
Interestingly, the names of Pheidias and Ictinus (although not Callicrates), along with many others, are carved into the frieze surrounding the perimeter of the Art Institute in Chicago.
doctors: Plutarch does not provide the names of the physicians, but it is interesting to speculate that physi- cians were apparently on site, or at least on call, to treat injuries suf- fered by the workers. And acci- dents like the one described in the document probably happened with some regularity; construction zones are inherently risky places even now, but in the fifth century, with- out regulations or policies specifi- cally protecting the workforce, they must have been even more dangerous.
Mnesicles: A fifth-century BCE architect about whom nothing is known except what Plutarch conveys to us in the document: that he was the designer of the Propylaea.
Pheidias: The famous sculptor- architect is thought to have been born ca. 490 BCE and to have died in 432. He was, and is, generally considered the best artisan of his time, high praise indeed when one considers the great number of artists flourishing during that era. His reputation primarily rests on
? ? ? AFTERMATH
Unfortunately, the Athenian Golden Age was brought to a crashing halt by two chief factors from which the Athenians never really recovered. The first of these was the death of Pericles from the highly contagious, and usually fatal, plague that swept through Athens around 430 and the following years. Pericles died around 429. Although a popular leader for many years, he had his share of enemies, too, and they were never shy about leveling angry criti- cisms at him, for almost all of his policy decisions.
The second factor was the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), the long and bitter conflict between the city-states of Athens and Sparta, an event that permanently derailed further intellectual and creative achievements in Athens. It is certainly true that Athens did not cease to exist after the war, and noted Athenian philosophers, scientists, writers, and orators flourished in the cen- turies to come. But it also seems safe to say that Athens never recaptured the heights to which it had risen in its fifth-century Golden Age.
ASK YOURSELF
1. As mentioned earlier (in "Keep in Mind as You Read"), Pericles siphoned off large sums of money from the Delian League treasury to pay for the labor and materials required to construct the expensive buildings. Was he justi- fied in doing so? Were his critics right to complain about what he did?
2. Large, impressive, expensive buildings are often built as dis- plays of power, as landmarks that enable a city to flaunt its wealth, and as sources of civic pride. Would the Parthenon have been an example of Athenian power, wealth, and pride? Would there have been other advantages for Athens in having a building of this magnitude in the city? After all, it was no accident that this huge temple was con- structed at the very top of one of the highest elevations in all of Athens!
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e ConsiderPericles'sbeautification-of-Athensplans. One of his motives in devising and promoting his ambitious building plan was apparently to provide jobs for people who were unemployed or under- employed. Politicians today often try to do the same thing. Can you find other examples in ancient history, or in western history generally, in which these kinds of full-employment programs
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were tried? How successful were they? What crite- ria could we use to determine whether Pericles succeeded?
e Consider the anecdote about the worker who was injured on the job: What kinds of conclusions or inferences can we draw from it? For example: How dangerous was it to "work construction" in the ancient world? How skilled or proficient was the medical profession in treating work-related injuries?
e Withregardtothatinjuredworker,Plutarchstates that "the goddess [Athena] appeared to him [Pericles] in a dream and ordered a course of treat- ment, which he applied, with the result that the man was easily and quickly healed. " Today, this explanation for the healing might seem a little, or a lot, far-fetched. Is it possible, however, that the ancient Athenians believed it? If Pericles merely made up the story about Athena appearing to him in a dream, why do you suppose he would have done that? What advantages would it bring, or what would he gain from it? Can you think of modern examples in which political or religious leaders claim to have visions or messages from God about a particular course of action?
Further Information
Kagan, Donald. Pericles of Athens and the Birth of Democracy. New York, 1991.
Ober, Josiah. The Athenian Revolution. Princeton, NJ, 1996. Website
438 B. C. Pericles Triumphant. http://www. pbs. org/empires/ thegreeks/characters/pericles_p8. html
Bibliography for Document
Scott-Kilvert, Ian (tr. ). Plutarch: The Rise and Fall of Athens; Nine Greek Lives. Penguin Classics. New York, 1960.
Workers Needed for Building the Parthenon
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? three of his greatest sculptures: the Athena Promachus, the statue of Athena in the Parthenon, and the statue of Zeus at Olympia. The Athena Promachus--like the Parthenon--was erected on the Acropolis. Pheidias created a pol- ished spear and shining helmet for the bronze, colossal statue. It was said that the glint of the sunlight on the spear point and the helmet crest could be seen from miles away. Pheidias's Olympian Zeus was considered not only his best work but the best ever created by any ancient Greek sculptor. It was a chryselephantine statue (like the Athena in the Parthenon), mas- sively made--over 60 feet tall-- and seated on a heavily decorated throne. The statue was so impres- sive that it was regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Propylaea: The Athenian Propylaea, built in the 430s, was an elabo- rately designed and constructed entryway to the Acropolis. It con- tained five doors: one for pro- cessions and their necessary com- ponents, such as wagons pulled by animals, and four other doors reserved for the general public. The Propylaea was also outfitted with auxiliary buildings, one on each end. One of these was used as a kind of picture gallery.
strove to excel themselves: Ancient Greek artists--like most typical ancient Greeks--loved to compete with one another to determine which of them could produce the best works of art.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? ? ? ? A HOME FIT FOR A GODDESS
The Parthenon is perhaps the most recognizable landmark in all of ancient Athens. Photos of it have probably appeared in more travel brochures, more feature newspaper articles, more history books, and on more Internet sites than any other ancient building. And why not? It came to symbolize the power and the wealth of the Golden Age of Athens under Pericles's inspired leadership.
The word derives from the Greek parthenos, meaning "young girl," one of the chief epithets of the goddess Athena, in whose honor the Parthenon was built. Located at the top of the Acropolis (see glossary, above), it was a massive rectangular structure, so large that it could reportedly be seen by sailors on ships in the Mediterranean Sea, from 20 miles or more away. Its exterior featured 34-foot-tall Doric columns, 17 of them on the two long sides of the building, 8 on the short sides. (By contrast, typical rectangular temples generally featured 13 columns on the long sides and 6 on the two ends. ) The columns were ingeniously designed in such a way that they bulged very slightly in the middle and tilted very slightly toward one another. The Greek architects were trying to create an optical illusion with this bulging and tilting; they knew that from a great distance, a curved line looks straight, and a straight line looks curved. They wanted the columns to appear to be perfectly straight when viewed by those sailors on the sea and by others who might be seeing the building from a distance.
Perhaps the most stunning feature of the temple was the magnificent statue of Athena, placed on the inside of the building. Standing some 40 feet tall, created by the super-talented sculptor-architect Pheidias, it was a chryselephantine (gold and ivory) colossus. The gold alone that it contained has been estimated to have been worth 44 talents, equivalent to approximately $13 million (see the following sidebar). Some archaeologists believe the statue's great height required a sort of skylight to be carved into the roof of the Parthenon to accom- modate it; otherwise, it would not have fit inside the building.
? ? ? ? ? ? ANCIENT GREEK MONEY
Greek money in Pericles's day was divided into four basic denominations: obols, drachmas, minas, and talents; the latter two were never minted. The drachma seems to have been the basis of the monetary system, much like the dollar in modern American currency. So the question arises: how much, in American dollars, was the drachma worth?
First, some equivalencies: six obols 1/4 one drachma
100 drachmas 1/4 one mina
6,000 drachmas 1/4 one talent
It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine the exact dollar amount for one drachma. But educated
guesses are possible. For example, it appears that one drachma was about the average daily income for a middle-class, employed Athenian in the fifth century BCE. If we assume an approximate contemporary mini- mum wage of $6. 00/hour, and an eight-hour workday, then we might suggest a value of $50 (rounded up from $48) for one Athenian drachma. (If this calculation is even roughly accurate, it then becomes apparent why the Athenians never minted one-talent coins. A one-talent coin would have been worth $300,000. Where, and on what, would such a coin be spent? What merchant could make change for it? )
Hence, 44 talents for the gold in the statue of Athena would be equivalent to $13,200,000. The overall cost of the Parthenon has been estimated at a stupendous 5,000 talents, or about one and a half billion dollars, a staggering sum even by today's standards, surpassing the price tag even of a modern sports palace like Yankee Stadium. A couple of factors that drove the cost so high: the expense of the building materials (only top-quality marble was used) and the labor costs. The document has revealed how many people were employed generally in the Athenian Golden Age, and certainly a good many of these workers were assigned to Parthenon construction. And of course, they all had to be paid.
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12. CICERO ADVISES HIS SON ON A RIGHT AND PROPER CAREER
INTRODUCTION
The orator/statesman/lawyer Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) produced a tremendous output of written works during his lifetime, including many philosophical treatises. Among these is his De Officiis, or On Duties.
Cicero's public life had taken a very gradual decline after his consulship in 63 BCE, and in the 50s and 40s, he turned increasingly to thinking about, studying, and writing philosophy. De Officiis, penned about 45 BCE, is the last, and possibly best, of his 15 philosophical tracts. The piece is addressed to his 21-year-old son (also named Marcus Tullius Cicero), who was at the time in Athens studying with the noted philosopher Cratippus. (The elder Cicero was apparently acquainted with Cratippus and even used his influence to help him gain Roman citizenship.
) Cicero wrote De Officiis with his son in mind.
Sadly, at the very end of the book, Cicero expressed his hope that he and his son could discuss in person the issues raised in it, but he never saw his son again. The famed orator was killed in the proscriptions of late 43 BCE.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Cicero, as an educated and sophisticated Roman gentleman, had a sort of benign contempt for people he considered beneath his social status, especially manual laborers such as "fishmongers, butchers, cooks, poulterers, and fishermen. " Interestingly, however, he professes a high regard for those engaged in agriculture (although he probably refers in the document to the owners and managers of the farms, not the field workers).
2. Cicero, and many Romans of his rank in society, looked down upon professions, and their practitioners, that today are held in (mostly) high esteem: actors, physi- cians, architects, and athletes, for example. This disconnect is especially striking in the case of charioteers and gladiators. Romans of all social classes flocked to the amphitheaters and the racetracks in huge numbers; the great chariot-racing venue in Rome, the Circus Maximus, is estimated to have had a seating capacity in excess of 250,000. But these same rabid spectators would have considered individual glad- iators and charioteers a contemptible lot.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? Document: Cicero's Advice to His Son
Now in regard to trades and other means of livelihood, which ones are to be considered becoming to a gentleman and which ones are vulgar, we have been taught, in gen- eral, as follows. First, those means of livelihood are rejected as undesirable which incur people's ill-will, as those of tax- gatherers and usurers. Unbecoming to a gentleman, too, and vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired work- men whom we pay for mere manual labor, not for artistic skill; for in their case, the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery. Vulgar we must consider those also who buy from wholesale merchants to retail immediately, for they would get no profits without a great deal of outright lying. And verily, there is no action that is meaner than misrepresentation. And all mechanics are engaged in vulgar trades, for no workshop can have anything liberal about it. Least respectable of all are those trades which cater for sensual pleasures: "Fishmongers, butchers, cooks, and poulterers, and fishermen. " [A quotation from the play Eunuch, by the Roman playwright Terence, ca. 195-159 BCE. ] Add to these, if you please, the perfumers, dancers, and the whole corps de ballet.
But the professions in which either a higher degree of intelligence is required or from which no small benefit to society is derived--medicine and architecture, for exam- ple, and teaching--these are proper for those whose social position they become. Trade, if it is on a small scale, is to be considered vulgar. But if wholesale and on a large scale, importing large quantities from all parts of the world, and distributing to many without misrepresentation, it is not to be greatly disparaged. It even seems to deserve the high- est respect, if those who are engaged in it, satiated, or rather, I should say, satisfied with the fortunes they have made, make their way from the port to a country estate, as they have often made it from the sea into port. But of all the occupations by which gain is secured, none is better than agriculture, none more profitable, none more delightful, none more becoming to a free man. [Tr. Walter Miller. Cicero: De Officiis (1. 150. ) LCL, 1913. Page numbers: 153, 155. ]
AFTERMATH
As noted earlier, Cicero is thought to have written this philosophical tract around 45 BCE, near the end of his long and distinguished career in Roman public and intellectual life. De Officiis was his penultimate published work; only the Philippics, a series of 14
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? corps de ballet: Cicero again enumera- tes a list of disreputable occupa- tions, culminating with the corps de ballet, or in Latin, ludus talar- ius, a kind of melodramatic vaude- ville show, often with bad acting, bad singing, and bad dancing. Cicero here is denigrating the actors who participate in such displays.
fishmongers, butchers, cooks, poul- terers, fishermen: It is not exactly clear why Cicero, or Terence for that matter, would consider these sorts of occupations the "least respectable," or why workers engaged in these occupations would be founts of lies and misrepresenta- tions. It could be that the market- places where these goods were sold sometimes harbored unsavory characters--thieves, pickpockets, muggers--and so the reputations of even the honest tradesmen were thereby besmirched.
liberal: This word is not to be under- stood with the modern political connotations. As used in the document, its etymological con- nection to the Latin word liber, "free," helps to define it: occupa- tions that are worthy of a free Roman citizen or those "becoming to a gentleman. "
Terence: (Full Roman name: Publius Terentius Afer. ) The Roman play- wright Terence wrote six plays; all survive. Eunuch (161 BCE) recounts the story of a love triangle involv- ing an Athenian youth, a courte- san, and a soldier.
vulgar: The Latin word, which has been translated as "vulgar," is sor- didus, a word of many and varied
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speeches directed mostly at his hated rival Mark Antony, appeared later. Crossing Mark Antony was not a wise thing to do; his influ- ence was on the rise in the 40s as Cicero's declined. For the last 18 months of his life, Cicero was reduced to not much more than a fugitive, wandering across Italy. (Fortunately, he owned several properties at various places, so presumably he was able to find accommodations. ) When he was eventually tracked down and mur- dered, in December of 43, his severed head and hands were put on public display, apparently at the behest of Mark Antony.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why do you suppose Cicero believed that fishermen, butchers, cooks, and chicken farmers engaged in professions that "cater[ed to] sensual pleasures"? Why would he have considered basic foods such as fish, meat, and poultry to be somehow linked to sensual pleasures?
2. Cicero does not explicitly urge his son not to earn his livelihood in any of the occu- pations that he scorns in the document. Do you think, however, that this is the implicit message?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e How would you feel if a parent or other close relative sent you a book- length letter (the De Officiis is several hundred pages long) filled with admonitions, career counseling, injunctions, and other advice that might seem a bit inappropriate? We do not know how the young Cicero felt about his father's many words of advice, but could you speculate about his reaction?
Cicero Advises His Son on a Right and Proper Career
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? meanings. In this context, its sense is one of impropriety; these occupations are not worthy of an honorable person. Note the con- trast to occupations "becoming to a gentleman. "
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? TWO ACTORS WHO ROSE ABOVE IT
Cicero (as we have seen) and other respectable Roman gentlemen and ladies were cynically contemptuous of those who took up the acting profession. But the orator/educator Quintilian (ca. 35-95 CE) relates the stories of two actors who seemed to be universally appreciated for their talents, Demetrius and Stratocles: "[T]he one [Demetrius] was at his best in the roles of gods, young men, good fathers and slaves, matrons and respectable old women [male actors played both male and female roles], while the other [Stratocles] excelled in the portrayal of sharp-tempered old men, cunning slaves, parasites, pimps, and all the more lively characters of comedy. " [Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory 11. 3; tr. Butler. ] Quintilian states that both actors had strong voices, but each one also had his own unique talents. Demetrius possessed a pair of extremely expressive hands, a manner or power of speech that charmed his audiences, and an ability to make his costumes "seem to puff out with wind as he walked. " It helped that he was a tall and handsome man, advantages that successful modern actors also enjoy!
Stratocles had the ability to move quickly and with great agility, and an infectious laughter that he some- times employed at unexpected or inappropriate places in the play, just to get the audience to laugh along with him. He also was able to manipulate his head and neck in such a way that it seemed as if the former were sinking into the latter.
Quintilian notes that if either man had tried to incorporate the other one's idiosyncrasies into his own ver- bal and physical repertoire, he would have failed as an actor.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? ? ? ? TRIMALCHIO'S COOK AND OTHER PROFESSIONS
In his satirical book Satyricon, the Roman novelist Petronius (d. ca. 65 CE) described an outlandish dinner party given by the obnoxious and filthy-rich Trimalchio. Trimalchio had a (usually misguided) opinion on every sub- ject imaginable, including the art of cooking. In a memorable scene from the book, a waiter carried into the din- ing room a huge roast pig and placed it before the dinner guests. Trimalchio was pleased at first, but then he began to look more closely at the pig and discovered that it had not been gutted. Furious, he demanded that the cook come out of the kitchen and answer for this unforgivable act of forgetfulness. When the cook appeared, all nervous and contrite, Trimalchio was about to order that he be horsewhipped. But the diners interceded on his behalf and begged Trimalchio to rescind the punishment; accidents happen! Trimalchio smiled and re- lented, and instructed the cook to gut the pig right then and there, in full view of all. As the cook complied, and went to work with his carving knife, sausages and blood-puddings tumbled out of the pig's belly. Everyone cheered, and the cook--who only moments before had faced the unhappy prospect of a beating-- was rewarded with a drink, a silver coin, and an expensive goblet.
Elsewhere in the story, Trimalchio ranks some of the professions according to the degree of difficulty. He considers the writing of literature the most challenging. After that come medicine and banking.
Cicero evaluated various professions not only in the document, but elsewhere in his writings. Consider these comments, from his philosophical essay On Divination [1. 24]: Doctors, for example, practice the art of medicine, but make many mistakes. Captains of sailing vessels are also capable of errors in judgment; for exam- ple, when the Greek fleet finally sailed away from Troy after 10 long years of warfare, their euphoria over leaving got in the way of their good sense. They gazed at the scenery, daydreamed, unmindful of a coming storm. Military generals, too, make bad and costly decisions. Politicians are not exempt from fallibility; Cicero gallantly notes that even he had made a mistake or two over the previous 40 years! All these examples were adduced in order to demonstrate that soothsayers should not be overly criticized because of an occasional incorrect proph- ecy, because most of the time, their proclamations are reliable.
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e The Christian author Tertullian (ca. 160-225 CE) wrote a treatise entitled De Spectaculis (Concerning Spectacles) in which he sharply criticized the atti- tude of the Roman populace toward charioteers and gladiators, and in par- ticular, their love of the games and shows, but their contempt for the individual athletes. Why do you suppose this double standard existed? Can you think of any examples in modern sports--or in any other occupa- tion or profession--in which there is a similar double standard?
Further information
Cowell, F. R. Cicero and the Roman Republic. London, 1948. Stockton, David. Cicero: A Political Biography. Oxford, 1971.
Websites
Cicero: On Duties. http://bostonleadershipbuilders. com/cicero/duties/epitome. htm Cicero: On Duties. http://www. iep. utm. edu/cicero/#SH7s
Bibliography for Document
Glover, T. R. (tr. ). Tertullian: Apology; De Spectaculis. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1931.
Miller, Walter (tr. ). Cicero: De Officiis. [LCL. ] London and New York, 1913.
13. THE SKY IS NO LONGER THE LIMIT: DIOCLETIAN'S CAP ON WAGES AND PRICES
INTRODUCTION
At the close of the third century CE, the Roman Empire was facing some serious economic challenges, including runaway inflation. The emperor Diocletian (reigned 284-306 CE) attempted to address the problem by issuing an unprecedented decree limiting the prices for commodities and services, and also capping wages. This decree, the Edictum de maximis pretiis, or Edict Concerning Maximum Prices, was issued in 301. Penalties for violating the edict were severe: death or exile.
The document is remarkable for the detailed information it provides about the relative prices of consumer goods at the time, as well as the wage scale in effect for a large number of occupations and professions.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. This detailed document forms the longest continuous text pertaining to economic issues still surviving from the ancient world, either Greek or Roman.
2. In the years of Diocletian's reign prior to the issuance of the edict, he and his armies had been engaged in seemingly endless wars and in putting down revolts in various parts of the empire. The tremendous expense associated with these campaigns may well have been a major factor in the economic crisis that precipitated the need for a cap on wages and prices.
3. Military adventurism may not have been the only problem. The contemporary Christian writer Lactantius implies that Diocletian's ambitious building programs also played a part in bringing about the empire's economic woes: "he had a certain endless passion for building, and no small exactions from the provinces for maintain- ing laborers and artisans and for supplying wagons and whatever else was necessary for the construction of public works. Here basilicas, there a circus, here a mint, there a shop for making weapons, here a house for his wife, there one for his daughter. " [Lactantius. On the Deaths of the Persecutors vii; tr. Lewis and Reinhold. ]
4. Most of the specified maximum salaries are per day or per month, but some are cal- culated according to the number of clients served, (or animals, in the case of veterinarians).
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
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Document: An Ancient Roman Wage/Price Freeze
[Excerpts from the preamble:]
If the excesses perpetrated by persons of unlimited and frenzied avarice could be checked by some self-restraint--this avarice which rushes for gain and profit with no thought for mankind . . . or if the general welfare could endure without harm this riotous license by which . .
