"Nowhere does the
impression
of order and religious emphasis appear better than in the use of time.
Foucault-Psychiatric-Power-1973-74
Berliere, L'Ordre monastique des origines au XII' siecle (Paris: Desclee de Brouwer, 1921); L'Ascese benedictine des origines a laJin du XII1 siecle (Paris: Desclee de Brouwer, 1927); and, "L'etude des reformes monastiques des Xc et XI1' siecles" Bulletin de la classe des Letlres ct des Sciences morales et politiques (Brussels: Academie royalc de Belgique, 1932) vol.
18; E.
Werner, Die Gesellschaftlichen grundlagender Klosterreform im XL Jahrhundert (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1953); J.
Lecler, S.
J.
, "La crise du monachisme aux X P XII1 siecles" in Aux sources de la spiritualite chretienne (Paris: Ed du Cerl, 1964).
On the monastic orders in general, see P.
Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, ou Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et mililaires, in 4 volumes (Pans: Ed.
du Petit Montrouge, 1847); P- Cousin, Precis d'hisloire monastique (Paris: Bloud et Gay, 1956); D.
Knowles, "Les siecles monastiques" in D.
Knowles and D.
Obolensky, Nouvelle Histoire de I'Eglise, volume 2: he Moyen Age (600-1500), trans.
L Jezequel (Paris: Le Seuil, 1968) pp.
223 240; and M.
Pacaut, Les Ordres monastiques et religieux au Moyen Age (Paris: Nathan, 1970).
2. Founded in 910 in the Maconnais, the Cluny order, living under Saint Benedict's rule, developed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in symbiosis with the seigniorial class, Irom which most of the abbots and prioresses came. See R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 1002 1036; U. Berliere, L'Ordre monastique, ch. 4, "Cluny et la reforme monastique" pp. 168 197; G. de Valous, Le Monachisme clunisien des origines au XV'. Vie inlerieure des monasteres el organisation de I'ordre, Vol. II, L'Ordre de Cluny (Pans: A. Picard, 1970); and "Cluny" in Cardinal A. Baudrillart, ed. Dictionnaire d'hisloire
et de geographic ecclesiastiques (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1956) vol. 2, col. 35 174; P. Cousin, Precis d'hisloire monastique, p. 5; and A. H. Bredero, "Cluny et Citeaux au XIP siecle. Les origines de la controverse" Studi Medievali, 1971, pp. 135-176.
3. Citeaux, founded on 21 March 1098 by Robert de Molesmes (1028 1111), separated from
the Cluny order in order to return to strict observance of Saint Benedict's rule, emphasiz
ing poverty, silence, work, and renunciation ol the world. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 920 959; U. Berliere, "Les origines de I'ordre de Citeaux de I'ordre benedictin au XIP siecle" Revue d'hisloire ecclesiastiquc, I900, pp. 448 471 and 1901, pp. 253 290; J. Besse, "Cisterciens" in A. Vacant, ed. Dictionnaire de theologie catholique (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1905) vol. 2, col. 2532 2550; R. Trilhe, "Citeaux" in
F. Cabrol, ed. Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne el de liturgie (Pans: Letouzey et Ane, 1913) vol. 3, col. 1779 1811; U. Berliere, L'Ordre monastique, pp. 168 197; J. -B. Mahn, L'Ordre cis- tercien et son gouvernement des origines au milieu du XIII1 siecle (1098-1266) (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1945); J . M . Canivez, "Citeaux (Ordre de)" in Cardinal A. Baudrillart, Dictionnaire d'histoire et de geographie ecclesiastiques (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1953) vol. 12, col. 874 997; and L. J. Lekai, Les Moines blancs. Histoire de I'ordre cistercien (Pans: Le Seuil, 1957).
4. In 1215, around the Castillian canon Dominique de Guzman, a community of evangelical preachers, living under the rule of Saint Augustine, was established, which in January 1217 received the name of "Preaching Friars" from Pope Honorius III. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 86-113; G. R. Galbraith, The Constitution of the Domenican Order, 1216-1360 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1925); M. H. Vicaire, Histoire de saint Dominique (Paris: Ed. du Cerf, 1957) in 2 volumes; and Saint Dominique et ses Jreres (Pans: Ed. du Cerf, 1967). See also, P. Mandonnet, "Freres Precheurs" in A. Vacant and E. Mangenot, Dictionnaire de theologie catholique (Pans: Letouzey et Ane, 1905) vol. 6, col. 863 924; R. L. CEchslin, "Freres Precheurs" in A. Rayez, ed. Dictionnaire de spiritualite ascelique et mystique. Doctrine el histoire (Paris: Beauchesne, 1964) vol. 5, col. 1422-1524; and, A. Duval and M. H. Vicaire, "Freres Precheurs (Ordre des)" in Dictionnaire d'hisloire et geographie ecclesiastiques, vol. 18, col. 1369-1426.
5. The order founded at Monte Cassino in 529 by Benedict of Nursie (480-547), who drafted its rule in 534. See, R. P. Helyot, "Benedictins (Ordre des)" in Dictionnaire des ordres religieux vol. 1, col. 416 430; C. Butler, Benedictine Monachism: Studies in Benedictine Life (London: Longmans Green and Co. , 1924), French translation by C. Grolleau, Le Monachisme benedictin (Paris:J. de Gigord, 1924); C. Jean Nesmy, Saint Benoit et la vie monastique (Paris: Le Seuil, 1959); and R. Tschudy, Les Benedictins (Paris: Ed. Saint Paul, 1963).
? 6. Founded in 1534 by Ignatius Loyola (1491 1556) to pursue the struggle against heresy, the order of Jesuits received the name "Company ot Jesus" from Pope Paul III in his bull Regimini Militantes Ecclesie. See, R. P. Ilelyot and others, Diclionnuire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 628-671; A. Demersay, Histoire physique, economique et politique du Paraguay et des establissemenls des jesuites (Paris: L. Hachette, 1 8 6 0 ) ; J . Brucker, La Compagnie de Jesus. Esquisse de son institut et de son histoire 1521-177} (Paris: G. Beauchesne, 1919); H. Beefier, Die Jesuiten. Geslall und Geschichte des Ordens (Munich: Kosel Verlag, 1951); A. Guillermou, Les Jesuites (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1963).
7. The "mendicant orders" were organized in the thirteenth century with a view to regener ating religious life; professing to live only by public chanty and practicing poverty, they devoted themselves to preaching and teaching. The four first mendicant orders are the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Carmelites, and the Augustinians.
For the Dominicans, see above note 4.
Constituted in 1209 by Francis of Assisi, the "Brotherhood of Penitents," devoted to the preaching ol penitence, was transformed into a religious order in 1210 with the name "Friars Minor" (minores: humble) and intending to lead an itinerant life of poverty. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Diclionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 2, col. 326-354; H. C. Lea,
A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1887) vol.
1, ch. 6, "The Mendicant orders," pp. 243-304 (French translation by S. Reinach, Histoire de I'lnquisition au Moyen Age [Pans: Societe nouvelle de hbraine et d'editions, 1 9 0 0 | vol.
1, ch. 6, "Les ordres mendiants"); E. d'Alenc,on, "Freres Mineurs" in Diclionnaire de theolo- giecatholique,vol. 6,col. 809 863;P. Gratien,HistoiredelafondationetderevolutiondeVordre des Freres Mineurs au XVIII1 siecle, (Gembloux: J. Duculot, 1928); F. de Sessevalle, Histoire generale de I'ordre de Saint-Francois (Le-Puy en Velay, Ed. de la Revue d'histoire franciscaine, 1935-1937) 2 volumes; and J. Moorman, A History of the Franciscan Orderfrom its origins to the Year 7577 (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1968).
In 1247 Pope Innocent IV entered the order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel into the lamily of "mendicants. " On the Carmelites, founded in 1185 by Berthold de Calabre, see, R. P. Helyot and others, Diclionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 667 705; and, B. Zimmerman, "Carmes (Ordre des)" in Diclionnaire de theologie catholique, op. cil, vol. 2, col. 1776-1792.
Pope Innocent IV decided to unite the hermits of Tuscany into a single community within the framework of the Augustinian order. SeeJ. Besse, "Augustin" in Dictionnaire de theologie catholique, vol. 1, col. 2472-2483. On the mendicant orders in general, see--in addition to the chapter devoted to them in H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition, vol. 1, pp. 275 346; Histoire de I'lnquisition, vol. 1, pp. 458-479; F. Vernet, Les Ordres mendiants (Pans: Bloud et Gay, 1933); J. Le Gofl, "Ordres mendiants et urbanisation dans la France medievale" in Annales ESC, no. 5, 1979, Histoire et Urbanisation, pp. 924 965- Foucault returns to the mendicant orders ol the Middle Ages, in the context of an analysis of "cynicism," in the College de France course of 1983 1984, "Le Gouvemement de soi et des autres. Le courage de la vente," lecture ol 29 February 1984.
8. See above, lecture of 21 November 1973, note 4.
9. In 1343 Jan Van Ruysbroek (1294-1381) founded a community at Groenendaal, near
Brussels, which he transformed in March 1350 into a religious order living under the Augustinian rule devoted to the struggle against heresy and lax morality within the Church. See, F. Hermans, Ruysbroek /'Admirable et son ecole (Pans: Fayard, 1958); J. Orcibal,
Jean de la Croix et les mystiques rheno-flamands, and A. Koyre, Mystiques, spirituels, alchimisles du XVIr siecle allemand (Paris: Gallimard, 1971).
10. One of the distinctive features of the schools of the "Brethren ol the Common Lile" was the distribution of students into decurics at the head ol which a decurion was responsible for the supervision ol conduct. See, M. J. Gaulres, "Histoire du plan d'etudes protestant. "
11.
"Nowhere does the impression of order and religious emphasis appear better than in the use of time. Early in the morning the inhabitants go to mass, then the children go to school and the adults to the workshop or fields . . . When work has ended, religious exercises begin: the catechism, the rosary, prayers; the end ol the day is free and left for strolling around and sport. A curfew marks the beginning of the night. . . This regime partakes of both the barracks and the monastery. " L. Baudin, Une theocratie socialiste: VEtat jesuite du Paraguay (Paris: M. T. Genin, 1962) p. 23. See, L. A. Muraton, J. Cristianesimo felice nelle
28 November 1973 89
? 90 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
missioni de'padri delta compagnia di Gesti nel Paraguai (Venice: G. Pasquali, 1743), French translation, Relation des missions du Paraguay, trans. P. Lambert (Paris: Bordellet, 1826) pp. 156-157; A. Demersay, Histoire . . . du Paraguay et des elablissements des jesuiles; J. Brucker, Le Gouvernemenl des jesuites au Paraguay (Pans: 1880); M. Fassbinder, Der "Jesuitenstaat" in Paraguay (Halle: M. Niemayer, 1926); C. Lugon, La Republique communiste chretienne des Guaranis(Pans: Editions Ouvneres, 1949). Foucault refers to thejesuits in Paraguay in his lecture to the Cercle d'etudes architecturales, "Des espaces autres" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 4,
p. 761.
12. A congregation ol priests and scholars founded in the sixteenth century by Cesar de Bus
(1544 1607), which in 1593 was established at Avignon. Inserted in the current of a renewal of the teaching of the catechism, it developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by turning to teaching in the colleges. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 2, col. 46 7/l.
13. See Surveiller et Punir, Part 3, ch. 1, pp. 137-138, 143, and 151 157; Discipline and Punish, Part 3, ch. 1, pp. 135 136, 141 142, and 149 156.
14. From 1781, the worker had to be provided with a "livret" or "earner" which had to be stamped by the administrative authorities when he moved and which he had to present when he started work. Reinstated by the Consulate, the livret was only finally abolished in 1890. See, M. Sauzet, Le Livret obligatoire des ouvriers, (Paris: F. Pichon, 1890); G. Bourgin, "Contribution a I'histoire du placement et du livret en France" Revue politique el parlemen- taire vol. LXXI, January March 1912, pp. 117 118; S. Kaplan, "Reflexions sur la police du monde du travail (1700 1815)" Revue hislorique, 103rd year, no. 529, January March 1979, pp. 17-77; E. Dolleans and G. Dehove, Histoire du travail en France. Mouvement ouvrier el legislation social, 2 volumes (Pans: Domat Montchrestien, 1953-1955); In his course at the College de France for 1972 1973, "La Societe punitive", in the lecture of 14 March 1973, Foucault presented the worker's livret as "an inlra judicial mechanism ol penalization. "
15. M. Foucault, Les Mots el les Choses. Une archeologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966) ch. 5, "Classer" pp. 137 176; English translation, The Order of Things. An Archeology
oj the Human Sciences, trans. A. Sheridan (London: Tavistock and New York: Pantheon, 1970) ch. 5, "Classifying," pp. 125 165.
16. J. Bentham, The Panopticon; La Panoptique. See above, lecture 21 November 1973, note 5. 17. A State penitentiary was built by Harvey, Busby, and Williams between 1816 and 1821 on a site at Pentonville acquired by Jeremy Bentham in 1795. It had a radiating structure ol six pentagons around a central hexagon containing the chaplain, inspectors, and employees.
The prison was demolished in 1903.
18. Petite Roquette was built following a competition for the construction of a model prison,
the arrangement of which, according to the terms of the circular of 24 February 1825, must be "such that, with the aid of a central point or internal gallery, the whole ol the prison can be supervised by one person, or at the most two people. " C. Lucas, Du systeme penitentiaire en Europe el aux Elats-Unis (Pans: Bossange, 1828) vol. 1, p. cxm. "La Petite Roquette" or "central House for corrective education" was constructed in 1827 according to a plan proposed by Lebas. It was opened in 1836 and allocated to young prisoners until 1865. See, N. Barbaroux, J. Broussard, and M. Hamoniaux, "L'evolution histonque de la Petite Roquette" Revue "Reeducation" no. 191, May 1967; H. Gaillac, Les Maisons de correction (18}0-19/I5) (Paris: Ed. Cujas, 1971) pp. 61-66; and, J. Gillet, Recherche sur la Petite Roquette (Paris: 1975).
19. J. Bentham, The Panopticon, Letter 21, Schools, p. 93, emphasis in original; La Panoplique, p. 166.
20. Bentham writes that it gives "such herculean and ineludible strength to the grip ol power" ibid. p. 88; ibid. p. 160.
21. Ibid. Preface, p. 31; ibid. p. 95-
22. Ibid. Letter, 21, Schools: "That species of Iraud at Westminster called cribbing, a vice thought
hitherto congenial to schools, will never creep in here" p. 86 (emphasis in original);
ibid. p. 158.
23. Ibid. Letter 18, Manufactories, pp. 8 0 81; ibid. p. 150.
24. Ibid. Letter 7, Penitentiary houses--safe custody, p. 48; ibid. p. 115-
25. Ibid. Letter 19, Mad-houses, pp. 81-82; ibid. p. 152.
? 26. Ibid. Letter 2, Plan for a Penitentiary Inspection house, pp. 35 36; ibid. pp. 7 8.
27. Ibid. Letter 21, Schools, p. 92; ibid. p. 16M.
2S. Foucault is alluding to Condillac's project ol deducing the order ol knowledge starting Irom sensation as the raw material of every development ol the human mind. See, Fitienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715 1780), Essai sur I'origine dcs connaissances humaine, ouvrage ou I'on riduil a un sail principc lout ce c/ui concemc I'enlcndemenl humain (Pans: P. Mortier, 17/|6); English translation, Essay on the origin of human know/edge, trans. H. Aarslelf (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Traite dcs sensations (Paris: De Bure, 175M | reprinted, Paris: Fayard, 198M |); English translation "A Treatise on the Sensations" in Philosophical Writings of Fjienne Bonnot, Abbe de Condi/lac, trans. Franklin Philip in collaboration with Harlan Lane (Hillsdale and London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1982). Foucault refers to this in an interview with C. Bonneloy in June 1966: "L'homme est il mort? " Dits el Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 57|2, and in Les Mots el le Choses, pp. 7M 77; The Order of Things, pp. 6 0 63.
29. This remark, which Bentham attributes to Helvetius, actually corresponds to the title ol a chapter "Education can do everything"--ol the posthumous work ol Claude Adrien Helvetius, De l'homme, de ses /aculles intellectuellcs el de son education, published by Prince Gelitzin (Amsterdam: 177M) vol. 3; English translation, A Treatise on Man; his intellectual faculties and his education, trans. W. Hooper ( London: Mil).
30. Pierre Carlet de Chamblam de Manvaux ( 1688 1763), La Dispute, comedie en un acle el en prose, oit pour savoir qui de l'homme ou de la /emme donne naissance a I'inconstance, le Prince et Hetmiane vont epier la rencontre de deux garcons et deux fillies eleves depuis leur en/ance dans I'isolement d'une Joret (Pans: J. Clousier, 17M7).
31. Allusion to Ernst Kantorowiez, The King's Two Bodies.
32. See A. Penot, Les Cites ouvrieres de Mulhouse et des deparlements du Haut-Rhin (Mulhouse:
L. Bader, 1867). Foucault returns to this topic in his interview with J. P. Barou and
M. Perot, "L'ceil du pouvoir"; "The Eye ol Power. "
33. See. J. B. Monlalcon and J. F. Terme, Hisloire des en/ants trouves (Pai is: J. B. Bailliere, 1837);
E. Parent de C u r z o n , Etudes sur les en/ants trouves au point de me de legislation, de la morale et de {'economic politique (Poitiers: H. Oudm, I8M7); HJ. B. Davenne, De I'organisation et du regime des secours publics en Trance (Paris: P. Dupont, 1865) vol. 1; L. Lallemand, Hisloire des en/ants abandonnes et delaisses. Eludes sur la protection de I'en/ancc (Pans: Picard et Guillaumin, 1885);J. Bouzon, Cent Ans de luttc sociale.
2. Founded in 910 in the Maconnais, the Cluny order, living under Saint Benedict's rule, developed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in symbiosis with the seigniorial class, Irom which most of the abbots and prioresses came. See R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 1002 1036; U. Berliere, L'Ordre monastique, ch. 4, "Cluny et la reforme monastique" pp. 168 197; G. de Valous, Le Monachisme clunisien des origines au XV'. Vie inlerieure des monasteres el organisation de I'ordre, Vol. II, L'Ordre de Cluny (Pans: A. Picard, 1970); and "Cluny" in Cardinal A. Baudrillart, ed. Dictionnaire d'hisloire
et de geographic ecclesiastiques (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1956) vol. 2, col. 35 174; P. Cousin, Precis d'hisloire monastique, p. 5; and A. H. Bredero, "Cluny et Citeaux au XIP siecle. Les origines de la controverse" Studi Medievali, 1971, pp. 135-176.
3. Citeaux, founded on 21 March 1098 by Robert de Molesmes (1028 1111), separated from
the Cluny order in order to return to strict observance of Saint Benedict's rule, emphasiz
ing poverty, silence, work, and renunciation ol the world. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 920 959; U. Berliere, "Les origines de I'ordre de Citeaux de I'ordre benedictin au XIP siecle" Revue d'hisloire ecclesiastiquc, I900, pp. 448 471 and 1901, pp. 253 290; J. Besse, "Cisterciens" in A. Vacant, ed. Dictionnaire de theologie catholique (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1905) vol. 2, col. 2532 2550; R. Trilhe, "Citeaux" in
F. Cabrol, ed. Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne el de liturgie (Pans: Letouzey et Ane, 1913) vol. 3, col. 1779 1811; U. Berliere, L'Ordre monastique, pp. 168 197; J. -B. Mahn, L'Ordre cis- tercien et son gouvernement des origines au milieu du XIII1 siecle (1098-1266) (Paris: E. de Boccard, 1945); J . M . Canivez, "Citeaux (Ordre de)" in Cardinal A. Baudrillart, Dictionnaire d'histoire et de geographie ecclesiastiques (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1953) vol. 12, col. 874 997; and L. J. Lekai, Les Moines blancs. Histoire de I'ordre cistercien (Pans: Le Seuil, 1957).
4. In 1215, around the Castillian canon Dominique de Guzman, a community of evangelical preachers, living under the rule of Saint Augustine, was established, which in January 1217 received the name of "Preaching Friars" from Pope Honorius III. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 86-113; G. R. Galbraith, The Constitution of the Domenican Order, 1216-1360 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1925); M. H. Vicaire, Histoire de saint Dominique (Paris: Ed. du Cerf, 1957) in 2 volumes; and Saint Dominique et ses Jreres (Pans: Ed. du Cerf, 1967). See also, P. Mandonnet, "Freres Precheurs" in A. Vacant and E. Mangenot, Dictionnaire de theologie catholique (Pans: Letouzey et Ane, 1905) vol. 6, col. 863 924; R. L. CEchslin, "Freres Precheurs" in A. Rayez, ed. Dictionnaire de spiritualite ascelique et mystique. Doctrine el histoire (Paris: Beauchesne, 1964) vol. 5, col. 1422-1524; and, A. Duval and M. H. Vicaire, "Freres Precheurs (Ordre des)" in Dictionnaire d'hisloire et geographie ecclesiastiques, vol. 18, col. 1369-1426.
5. The order founded at Monte Cassino in 529 by Benedict of Nursie (480-547), who drafted its rule in 534. See, R. P. Helyot, "Benedictins (Ordre des)" in Dictionnaire des ordres religieux vol. 1, col. 416 430; C. Butler, Benedictine Monachism: Studies in Benedictine Life (London: Longmans Green and Co. , 1924), French translation by C. Grolleau, Le Monachisme benedictin (Paris:J. de Gigord, 1924); C. Jean Nesmy, Saint Benoit et la vie monastique (Paris: Le Seuil, 1959); and R. Tschudy, Les Benedictins (Paris: Ed. Saint Paul, 1963).
? 6. Founded in 1534 by Ignatius Loyola (1491 1556) to pursue the struggle against heresy, the order of Jesuits received the name "Company ot Jesus" from Pope Paul III in his bull Regimini Militantes Ecclesie. See, R. P. Ilelyot and others, Diclionnuire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 628-671; A. Demersay, Histoire physique, economique et politique du Paraguay et des establissemenls des jesuites (Paris: L. Hachette, 1 8 6 0 ) ; J . Brucker, La Compagnie de Jesus. Esquisse de son institut et de son histoire 1521-177} (Paris: G. Beauchesne, 1919); H. Beefier, Die Jesuiten. Geslall und Geschichte des Ordens (Munich: Kosel Verlag, 1951); A. Guillermou, Les Jesuites (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1963).
7. The "mendicant orders" were organized in the thirteenth century with a view to regener ating religious life; professing to live only by public chanty and practicing poverty, they devoted themselves to preaching and teaching. The four first mendicant orders are the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Carmelites, and the Augustinians.
For the Dominicans, see above note 4.
Constituted in 1209 by Francis of Assisi, the "Brotherhood of Penitents," devoted to the preaching ol penitence, was transformed into a religious order in 1210 with the name "Friars Minor" (minores: humble) and intending to lead an itinerant life of poverty. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Diclionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 2, col. 326-354; H. C. Lea,
A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1887) vol.
1, ch. 6, "The Mendicant orders," pp. 243-304 (French translation by S. Reinach, Histoire de I'lnquisition au Moyen Age [Pans: Societe nouvelle de hbraine et d'editions, 1 9 0 0 | vol.
1, ch. 6, "Les ordres mendiants"); E. d'Alenc,on, "Freres Mineurs" in Diclionnaire de theolo- giecatholique,vol. 6,col. 809 863;P. Gratien,HistoiredelafondationetderevolutiondeVordre des Freres Mineurs au XVIII1 siecle, (Gembloux: J. Duculot, 1928); F. de Sessevalle, Histoire generale de I'ordre de Saint-Francois (Le-Puy en Velay, Ed. de la Revue d'histoire franciscaine, 1935-1937) 2 volumes; and J. Moorman, A History of the Franciscan Orderfrom its origins to the Year 7577 (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1968).
In 1247 Pope Innocent IV entered the order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel into the lamily of "mendicants. " On the Carmelites, founded in 1185 by Berthold de Calabre, see, R. P. Helyot and others, Diclionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 1, col. 667 705; and, B. Zimmerman, "Carmes (Ordre des)" in Diclionnaire de theologie catholique, op. cil, vol. 2, col. 1776-1792.
Pope Innocent IV decided to unite the hermits of Tuscany into a single community within the framework of the Augustinian order. SeeJ. Besse, "Augustin" in Dictionnaire de theologie catholique, vol. 1, col. 2472-2483. On the mendicant orders in general, see--in addition to the chapter devoted to them in H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition, vol. 1, pp. 275 346; Histoire de I'lnquisition, vol. 1, pp. 458-479; F. Vernet, Les Ordres mendiants (Pans: Bloud et Gay, 1933); J. Le Gofl, "Ordres mendiants et urbanisation dans la France medievale" in Annales ESC, no. 5, 1979, Histoire et Urbanisation, pp. 924 965- Foucault returns to the mendicant orders ol the Middle Ages, in the context of an analysis of "cynicism," in the College de France course of 1983 1984, "Le Gouvemement de soi et des autres. Le courage de la vente," lecture ol 29 February 1984.
8. See above, lecture of 21 November 1973, note 4.
9. In 1343 Jan Van Ruysbroek (1294-1381) founded a community at Groenendaal, near
Brussels, which he transformed in March 1350 into a religious order living under the Augustinian rule devoted to the struggle against heresy and lax morality within the Church. See, F. Hermans, Ruysbroek /'Admirable et son ecole (Pans: Fayard, 1958); J. Orcibal,
Jean de la Croix et les mystiques rheno-flamands, and A. Koyre, Mystiques, spirituels, alchimisles du XVIr siecle allemand (Paris: Gallimard, 1971).
10. One of the distinctive features of the schools of the "Brethren ol the Common Lile" was the distribution of students into decurics at the head ol which a decurion was responsible for the supervision ol conduct. See, M. J. Gaulres, "Histoire du plan d'etudes protestant. "
11.
"Nowhere does the impression of order and religious emphasis appear better than in the use of time. Early in the morning the inhabitants go to mass, then the children go to school and the adults to the workshop or fields . . . When work has ended, religious exercises begin: the catechism, the rosary, prayers; the end ol the day is free and left for strolling around and sport. A curfew marks the beginning of the night. . . This regime partakes of both the barracks and the monastery. " L. Baudin, Une theocratie socialiste: VEtat jesuite du Paraguay (Paris: M. T. Genin, 1962) p. 23. See, L. A. Muraton, J. Cristianesimo felice nelle
28 November 1973 89
? 90 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
missioni de'padri delta compagnia di Gesti nel Paraguai (Venice: G. Pasquali, 1743), French translation, Relation des missions du Paraguay, trans. P. Lambert (Paris: Bordellet, 1826) pp. 156-157; A. Demersay, Histoire . . . du Paraguay et des elablissements des jesuiles; J. Brucker, Le Gouvernemenl des jesuites au Paraguay (Pans: 1880); M. Fassbinder, Der "Jesuitenstaat" in Paraguay (Halle: M. Niemayer, 1926); C. Lugon, La Republique communiste chretienne des Guaranis(Pans: Editions Ouvneres, 1949). Foucault refers to thejesuits in Paraguay in his lecture to the Cercle d'etudes architecturales, "Des espaces autres" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 4,
p. 761.
12. A congregation ol priests and scholars founded in the sixteenth century by Cesar de Bus
(1544 1607), which in 1593 was established at Avignon. Inserted in the current of a renewal of the teaching of the catechism, it developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by turning to teaching in the colleges. See, R. P. Helyot and others, Dictionnaire des ordres religieux, vol. 2, col. 46 7/l.
13. See Surveiller et Punir, Part 3, ch. 1, pp. 137-138, 143, and 151 157; Discipline and Punish, Part 3, ch. 1, pp. 135 136, 141 142, and 149 156.
14. From 1781, the worker had to be provided with a "livret" or "earner" which had to be stamped by the administrative authorities when he moved and which he had to present when he started work. Reinstated by the Consulate, the livret was only finally abolished in 1890. See, M. Sauzet, Le Livret obligatoire des ouvriers, (Paris: F. Pichon, 1890); G. Bourgin, "Contribution a I'histoire du placement et du livret en France" Revue politique el parlemen- taire vol. LXXI, January March 1912, pp. 117 118; S. Kaplan, "Reflexions sur la police du monde du travail (1700 1815)" Revue hislorique, 103rd year, no. 529, January March 1979, pp. 17-77; E. Dolleans and G. Dehove, Histoire du travail en France. Mouvement ouvrier el legislation social, 2 volumes (Pans: Domat Montchrestien, 1953-1955); In his course at the College de France for 1972 1973, "La Societe punitive", in the lecture of 14 March 1973, Foucault presented the worker's livret as "an inlra judicial mechanism ol penalization. "
15. M. Foucault, Les Mots el les Choses. Une archeologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966) ch. 5, "Classer" pp. 137 176; English translation, The Order of Things. An Archeology
oj the Human Sciences, trans. A. Sheridan (London: Tavistock and New York: Pantheon, 1970) ch. 5, "Classifying," pp. 125 165.
16. J. Bentham, The Panopticon; La Panoptique. See above, lecture 21 November 1973, note 5. 17. A State penitentiary was built by Harvey, Busby, and Williams between 1816 and 1821 on a site at Pentonville acquired by Jeremy Bentham in 1795. It had a radiating structure ol six pentagons around a central hexagon containing the chaplain, inspectors, and employees.
The prison was demolished in 1903.
18. Petite Roquette was built following a competition for the construction of a model prison,
the arrangement of which, according to the terms of the circular of 24 February 1825, must be "such that, with the aid of a central point or internal gallery, the whole ol the prison can be supervised by one person, or at the most two people. " C. Lucas, Du systeme penitentiaire en Europe el aux Elats-Unis (Pans: Bossange, 1828) vol. 1, p. cxm. "La Petite Roquette" or "central House for corrective education" was constructed in 1827 according to a plan proposed by Lebas. It was opened in 1836 and allocated to young prisoners until 1865. See, N. Barbaroux, J. Broussard, and M. Hamoniaux, "L'evolution histonque de la Petite Roquette" Revue "Reeducation" no. 191, May 1967; H. Gaillac, Les Maisons de correction (18}0-19/I5) (Paris: Ed. Cujas, 1971) pp. 61-66; and, J. Gillet, Recherche sur la Petite Roquette (Paris: 1975).
19. J. Bentham, The Panopticon, Letter 21, Schools, p. 93, emphasis in original; La Panoplique, p. 166.
20. Bentham writes that it gives "such herculean and ineludible strength to the grip ol power" ibid. p. 88; ibid. p. 160.
21. Ibid. Preface, p. 31; ibid. p. 95-
22. Ibid. Letter, 21, Schools: "That species of Iraud at Westminster called cribbing, a vice thought
hitherto congenial to schools, will never creep in here" p. 86 (emphasis in original);
ibid. p. 158.
23. Ibid. Letter 18, Manufactories, pp. 8 0 81; ibid. p. 150.
24. Ibid. Letter 7, Penitentiary houses--safe custody, p. 48; ibid. p. 115-
25. Ibid. Letter 19, Mad-houses, pp. 81-82; ibid. p. 152.
? 26. Ibid. Letter 2, Plan for a Penitentiary Inspection house, pp. 35 36; ibid. pp. 7 8.
27. Ibid. Letter 21, Schools, p. 92; ibid. p. 16M.
2S. Foucault is alluding to Condillac's project ol deducing the order ol knowledge starting Irom sensation as the raw material of every development ol the human mind. See, Fitienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715 1780), Essai sur I'origine dcs connaissances humaine, ouvrage ou I'on riduil a un sail principc lout ce c/ui concemc I'enlcndemenl humain (Pans: P. Mortier, 17/|6); English translation, Essay on the origin of human know/edge, trans. H. Aarslelf (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Traite dcs sensations (Paris: De Bure, 175M | reprinted, Paris: Fayard, 198M |); English translation "A Treatise on the Sensations" in Philosophical Writings of Fjienne Bonnot, Abbe de Condi/lac, trans. Franklin Philip in collaboration with Harlan Lane (Hillsdale and London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1982). Foucault refers to this in an interview with C. Bonneloy in June 1966: "L'homme est il mort? " Dits el Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 57|2, and in Les Mots el le Choses, pp. 7M 77; The Order of Things, pp. 6 0 63.
29. This remark, which Bentham attributes to Helvetius, actually corresponds to the title ol a chapter "Education can do everything"--ol the posthumous work ol Claude Adrien Helvetius, De l'homme, de ses /aculles intellectuellcs el de son education, published by Prince Gelitzin (Amsterdam: 177M) vol. 3; English translation, A Treatise on Man; his intellectual faculties and his education, trans. W. Hooper ( London: Mil).
30. Pierre Carlet de Chamblam de Manvaux ( 1688 1763), La Dispute, comedie en un acle el en prose, oit pour savoir qui de l'homme ou de la /emme donne naissance a I'inconstance, le Prince et Hetmiane vont epier la rencontre de deux garcons et deux fillies eleves depuis leur en/ance dans I'isolement d'une Joret (Pans: J. Clousier, 17M7).
31. Allusion to Ernst Kantorowiez, The King's Two Bodies.
32. See A. Penot, Les Cites ouvrieres de Mulhouse et des deparlements du Haut-Rhin (Mulhouse:
L. Bader, 1867). Foucault returns to this topic in his interview with J. P. Barou and
M. Perot, "L'ceil du pouvoir"; "The Eye ol Power. "
33. See. J. B. Monlalcon and J. F. Terme, Hisloire des en/ants trouves (Pai is: J. B. Bailliere, 1837);
E. Parent de C u r z o n , Etudes sur les en/ants trouves au point de me de legislation, de la morale et de {'economic politique (Poitiers: H. Oudm, I8M7); HJ. B. Davenne, De I'organisation et du regime des secours publics en Trance (Paris: P. Dupont, 1865) vol. 1; L. Lallemand, Hisloire des en/ants abandonnes et delaisses. Eludes sur la protection de I'en/ancc (Pans: Picard et Guillaumin, 1885);J. Bouzon, Cent Ans de luttc sociale.
