Definition of Rating
Categories
and Quantitative Re- sults, 405; 2.
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
J.
F.
Brown, who also contributed important theoretical concepts.
The distribution and collection of questionnaires and the interviewing of subjects in Los Angeles was in the hands of Emily Gruen and Carol Creedon, assisted by Ida Malcolm and James Mower.
Grace Berg and Margaret Weil served ably as secretaries, and Margot von Mendelssohn, permanent secretary of the Institute of Social Research, devoted a large part of her time to this project.
Dr.
Fred- erick Hacker, Dr.
Ernest Lewy, and Dr.
Marcel Frym participated in the seminars which were held regularly in Los Angeles while the research was in progress there; their devotion to the study is particularly appreciated.
The mountainous task of scoring, tabulating and performing innumerable statistical operations upon the material gathered by means of some zooo questionnaires was performed with patience and care by Ellan Ulery and Anne Batchelder Morrow. They were assisted in no small way by Lionel Whitnah, Jack Danielson, Frank Vanasek, and Nannette Heiman. Ellan Ulery and Anne Batchelder Morrow also deserve much credit for their scoring of the material elicited by the "projective questions" described in Chapter XV. Dr. Alfred Glixman is to b~ thanked for performing a special correlational analysis of our attitude scales-work which is described in Chapters IV and VII.
At different periods during the course of the study, Marjorie Castagnetto, Anne Vollmar and Zelma Seidner had charge of the secretarial work in Berkeley. Each in turn, with complete loyalty and superior competence, assumed the enormous burden of typing records and manuscripts and, in addition, took responsibility for the innumerable small but crucially im- portant tasks incident to keeping in motion a research involving numerous workers and subjects. Our most heartfelt thanks go to Anne Vollmar who, in addition to performing the secretarial work described above, labored with endless patience and devotion to make something relatively uniform and presentable out of the manuscripts of all shapes and sizes which we handed her-an editorial job of enormous proportion-and whose serenity and wisdom in practical matters were relied upon and deeply appreciated by all members of our staff. Alice Wilson, Alice Davis, Ruth Gay, Betty
? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XV
Cummings, and Edna Sexias also helped with the typing of records and manuscript; we greatly appreciate their willingness to be called upon when needed.
If we were to mention here all the people who cooperated by making arrangements for us to administer our questionnaires to the groups with which they were associated, and other people who assisted in particular aspects of the study, the list would be very long indeed. Acknowledgments are made at appropriate places in the chapters that follow.
To complete a special project lying within the scope of our study and to meet unexpected expenses connected with preparation of the manuscript for publication it was necessary to seek financial aid in addition to that described above. We are indebted to the Social Science Research Council for the Grant-in-Aid which made possible the correlational analysis de- scribed in Chapters IV and VII, and to the Rosenberg Foundation, the Re- search Board of the University of California, the Institute of Social Sciences of the University of California and the Graduate Division of Western Reserve University for their support in time of special need.
Finally, we are grateful to Dr. Felix J. Weil of the Institute of Social Re- search. He contributed many helpful criticisms of the manuscript, under- took the arduous task of coordinating all the proof reading, and performed invaluable services of an editorial nature.
THE AuTHORS
? III.
1. Ideology Concerning the Jews, 41; 2. General Eth- nocentrism, 43; 3. Politics, 45; 4. Religion, 52; 5. Vo- cation and Income, 54
THE STUDY OF ANTI-SEMITIC IDEOLOGY-Daniel]. Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ANTI-SEMITISM (A-S) SCALE
1. General Rules in Item Formulation, 59; 2. Major Sub- divisions or Areas: The Subscales, 62; 3. The Total Anti- Semitism (A-S) Scale, 68
CONTENTS
FOREWORD TO STUDIES IN PREJUDICE v PREFACE BY MAX HORKHEIMER ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
I. INTRODUCTION
A. THE PROBLEM
B. METHODOLOGY
1. General Characteristics of the Method, 11; 2. The
Techniques, 13
C. PROCEDURES IN THE COLLECTION OF DATA
1. The Groups Studied, 19; 2. The Distribution and Collection of Questionnaires, 23; 3. The Selection of Subjects for Intensive Clinical Study, 25
PART I
THE MEASUREMENT OF IDEOLOGICAL TRENDS
II. THE CONTRASTING IDEOLOGIES OF TWO COL- LEGE MEN: A PRELIMINARY VIEW-R. Nevitt Sanford
A. INTRODUCTION
B. MACK; A MAN HIGH ON ETHNOCENTRISM
I I
I9
C. LARRY: A MAN LOW ON ETHNOCENTRISM D. ANALYSIS OF THE TWO CASES
3I
3I
32
37 39
57 57 58
xvii
? XVlll CONTENTS
IV.
C. RESUL TS: ST A TISTICAL ANAL YSIS OF THE SCALE 71 1. Reliability, 72; 2. lntercorrelations of the Subscales,
74; 3. Internal Consistency: Statistical Analysis of the Individual Items, 76
D. THE SHORT FORM OF THE A-S SCALE
E. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK At~D
LARRY ON THE A-S SCALE
F. DISCUSSION: THE STRUCTURE OF ANTI-SEMITIC IDEOLOGY 92
THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY-Daniel
f. Levinson 102
V.
POLITICO-ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY AND GROUP MEM- BERSHIPS IN RELATION TO ETHNOCENTRISM- Daniel f. Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
A. B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
INTRODUCTION 102 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ETHNOCENTRISM (E) SCALE 104 1. Major Subdivisions or Areas: The Subscales, 105; 2.
The Total Ethnocentrism (E) Scale, 109
RESUL TS: ST A TISTICAL ANAL YSIS OF THE SCALE 109 1. Reliability, 112; 2. lntercorrelations Among the Sub- scales, 113; 3. Internal Consistency: Statistical Analysis
of the Individual Items, 114; 4. Second Form of the E
Scale (Form 78), 116
THE INCLUSION OF ANTI-SEMITISM WITHIN GENERAL ETH- NOCENTRISM I22 1. The Third Form of the E Scale (Form 60), 123; 2. The Fourth Form of the E Scale (Forms 45 and 40), 127;
3. A Suggested FinalE Scale, 141
VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE
CONCLUSIONS: THE STRUCTURE OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY 145
B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE (PEC) SCALE
POLITICO-ECONOMIC
CONSERV A TISM
I5I I53
1. Some Major Trends in Contemporary Liberalism and Conservatism, 153; 2. The Initial PEC Scale (Form 78), 157; 3. The Second PEC Scale (Form 60), 163; 4. The Third PEC Scale (Forms 45 and 40), 168; 5. Discussion: Some Patterns of Contemporary Liberalism and Conserva- tism, 175
C. THE RELA TION RETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND CONSERV A TISM 178 D. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND
LARRY ON THE PEC SCALE
? of Religion and the Church, 215; C. DISCUSSION
D. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
3. ? Scale Items, 218
CONTENTS XlX
E. THE RELATION BETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND MEMBERSHIP IN VARlOUS POLITICAL A~D ECO~OMIC GROUPINGS
F . CONCLUSIONS
VI. ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO SOME RELI- GIOUS ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES-R. Nevitt San- ford 208
A. INTRODUCTION 208
B. RESUL TS 208
1. Religious Group Memberships, 208; 2. "Importance"
VII. THE MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT ANTIDEMO- CRATIC TRENDS-R. Nevitt Sanford, T. W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, and Daniel f. Levinson 222
A. INTRODUCTION 222
B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FASCISM (F) SCALE 224
1. The Underlying Theory, 224; 2. The Formulation of
Scale Items, 241
C. RESULTS WITH SUCCESSIVE FORMS OF THE F SCALE 242
1. Statistical Properties of the Preliminary Scale (Form 78), 242; 2. Item Analysis and Revision of the Prelimi- nary Scale, 244; 3. The Second F Scale: Form 60, 247; 4. The Third F Scale: Forms 45 and 40, 252
D. CORRELATIONS OF THE F SCALE WITH E AND WITH PEC 262
E. DIFFERENCES IN MEAN F-SCALE SCORE AMONG VARIOUS GROUPS 265
F. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE F-SCALE RESPONSES OF
MACK AND LARRY
G. CONCLUSION
Vlll. ETHNOCENTRISM ? IN RELATION TO INTELLI- GENCE AND EDUCATION-Daniel f. Levinson 28o
PART II
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH CLINICAL
IX.
INTERVIEWS
THE INTERVIEWS AS AN APPROACH TO THE PREJ- UDICED PERSONALITY-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 291 A. INTRODUCTION: COMP ARISON OF GROUPS 291 B. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR THE INTERVIEWS 294
1. Basis of Selection, 294; 2. Representativeness of the
2I9 220
? XX
CONTENTS
Interviewees, 295; 3. Approaching the Interviewees, 300
C. THE INTERVIEWERS 301
D. SCOPE AND TECHNIQUE OF THE INTERVIEW 302 1. General Plan for the Interview, 302; 2. "Underlying"
and "Manifest" Questions, 303; 3. General Instructions
to the Interviewers, 303
E. THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 304
1. Vocation, 304; 2. Income, 307; 3. Religion, 310; 4. Clinical Data, 312; 5. Politics, 320; 6. Minorities and "Race," 322
F. THE SCORING OF THE INTERVIEWS 325 1. Quantification of Interview Data, 325; 2. Broad Out-
line of Categories in the Interview Scoring Manual, 326;
3. The Interview Rating Procedure and the Raters, 327;
4. Reliability of the Interview Ratings, 328; 5. Minimiz-
ing Halo-Effects in Rating the Interviews, 333; 6. Tabu- lation of Interview Ratings by Categories: Statistical Sig-
nificance, 334
X. PARENTS AND CHILDHOOD AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 337
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 337 ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTS AND CONCEPTION OF THE FAMILY 338 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 338; 2. Idealization vs. Objective Appraisal of Par- ents, 340; 3. Genuineness of Affect, 346; 4. Feelings of Victimization, 347; 5. Submission vs. Principled Inde- pendence, 350; 6. Dependence for Things vs. Depend- ence for Love, 353; 7. Ingroup Orientation to the Family, 356
CONCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT 358 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 358; 2. Image of the Father in Men: Distant and Stern vs. Relaxed and Mild, 359; 3. Image of the Father
in Women: The Role of Provider, 365; 4. Image of the Mother: Sacrifice, Moralism, Restrictiveness, 366; 5. Parental Conflict, 368; 6. Father-Dominated vs. Mother- Oriented Home, 370; 7. Discipline: Harsh Application of Rules vs. Assimilation of Principles, 371
CHILDHOOD EVENTS AND A TTITUDES TOW ARD SIBLINGS 376 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 376; 2. Attitudes Toward Siblings, 377; 3. Child- hood Events, 382; 4. Status Concern, 382
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FAMILY PATTERNS 384
C.
D.
E.
? C.
. D.
42 I
CONTENTS XXl
XI. SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 390
A.
B.
A TTITUDE TOW ARD SEX 390 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 390; 2. Status via Sex, 393; 3. Moralistic Rejec-
- tion of Instinctual Tendencies, 395; 4. "Pure" vs. "Bad" Women, 397; 5. Ego-Alien Ambivalence vs. "Fondness," 399; 6. Exploitive Manipulation for Power, 400; 7. Conventionality vs. Individualism, 402; 8. Summary, 404 A TTITUDE TOW ARD PEOPLE
1.
Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 405; 2. Moralistic Condemnation vs. Permissive- ness, 406; 3. Extrapunitiveness, 409; 4. World as Jun- gle, 411; 5. Hierarchical vs. Equalitarian Conception of Human Relations, 413; 6. Dependence for Things, 414; 7. Manipulation vs. Libidinization of People and Genuine Work Adjustment, 415; 8. Social Status vs. Intrinsic Worth in Friendship, 418; 9. Summary, 420
A TTITUDE TOW ARD PRESENT SELF
1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
sults, 421; 2. Self-Glorification vs. Objective Appraisal, 423; 3. Masculinity and Femininity, 428; 4. Conven- tionalism and Moralism, 429; 5. Conformity of Self and Ideal, 430; 6. Denial of Sociopsychological Causation, 432; 7. Property as Extension of Self, 433
405
CONCEPTION OF CHILDHOOD SELF 434 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 434; 2. "Difficult" Child, 437; 3. Blandness vs. Adult-Orientation, 438; 4. Contrasting Picture of Child- hood and Present, 440; 5. Summary of Attitude Toward
Present Self and Childhood Self, 440
XII. DYNAMIC AND COGNITIVE PERSONALITY OR- GANIZATION AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTER-
VIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 442
A.
B.
DYNAMIC CHARACTER STRUCTURE 442 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 442; 2. Orality and Anality, 445; 3. Dependence,
449; 4. Aggression, 450; 5. Ambivalence, 451; 6. Iden- tification, 452; 7. Superego, 454; 8. Strength of the Ego, 456; 9. Distortion of Reality, 457; 10. Physical Symptoms, 459
COGNITIVE PERSONALITY ORGANIZA TION 461 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
? XXll CONTENTS
sults, 461; 2. Rigidity, 461; 3. Negative Attitude To- ward Science. Superstition, 464; 4. Anti-Intraceptive- ness and Autism, 465; 5. Suggestibility, 467
XIII. COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF IN- TERVIEW RESULTS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik
A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED 468
1. Verification of Anticipated Trend by Categories, 468;
2. Composite Ratings for Seven Major Areas, 470
B. V ALITITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RA TINGS OF THE INTER-
VIEWS
1. Individual Composite Score Based on All Areas of Rat- ing, 471; 2. Over-all Intuitive Rating and Its Agree- ment with the Composite Score, 472; 3. Agreement with the Questionnaire Results, 472
471
C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY PATTERNS DERIVED FROM
THE INTERVIEWS 473 1. Introduction, 473; 2. Repression vs. Awareness, 474;
3. Externalization vs. Internalization, 474; 4. Conven- tionalism vs. Genuineness, 476; 5. Power vs. Love-Orien- tation, 478; 6. Rigidity vs. Flexibility. Problems of Ad- justment, 479; 7. Some Genetic Aspects, 482; 8. Cul- tural Outlook, 484
PART Ill
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH PROJECTIVE
MA TERIAL
XIV. THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST IN THE STUDY OF PREJUDICED AND UNPREJUDICED IN- DIVIDUALS-Betty Aron 489
A. TESTING PROCEDURE 490
1. The Sample Tested, 490; 2. Technique of Adminis-
tration, 493; 3. The Pictures Used, 493
B. METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF THE STORY PROTOCOLS 496
1. The Murray-Sanford Scheme, 496; 2. Thematic Anal-
ysis, 506
C. THE T. A. T. S OF MACK A:KD LARRY
1. Larry's Stories, 530; 2. Mack's Stories, 534; 3. Anal-
529
543
ysis of the Stories, 537 D. SUMMARY
? A. B. C.
D.
E.
INTRODUCTION S4S QUANTIFICATION BY MEANS OF SCORING CATEGORIES S48 SCORING MANUAL: CATEGORIES OF PROJECTIVE QUESTION RESPONSE SSO RESULTS S79 1. Reliability of Scoring, S81; 2. Projective Question Scores in Relation to Standing on the E Scale, S84; 3. Validation by Means of Case Studies: Mack and Larry, S92 CONCLUSIONS S9S 1. General Ego Functioning, S9S; 2. Specific Properties
CONTENTS XXlll
XV. PROJECTIVE QUESTIONS IN THE STUDY OF PER- SONALITY AND IDEOLOGY-Daniel J. Levinson S4S
of the Ego, S96; 3. Achievement Values vs. Conven- tional Values, S97; 4. The Handling of Dependency as an Underlying Trend, S99; S. The Handling of Other Trends, 600
PART IV
QUALIT A TIVE STUDIES OF IDEOLOGY
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
603
XVI. PREJUDICE IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6os
A. INTRODUCTION 6os
B. THE "FUNCTIONAL" CHARACTER OF ANTI-SEMITISM 609
612 WHA T? 617 622
C. THE IMAGINARY FOE
D. ANTI-SEMITISM FOR
E. TWO KINDS OF JEWS
F. THE ANTI-SEMITE'S DILEMMA 627
G. PROSECUTOR AS JUDGE 629
H. THE MISFIT BOURGEOIS 637 I. OBSERVATIONS ON LOW-SCORING SUBJECTS 644
J . C O N C L U S I O N
6S 3
XVII. POLITICS AND ECONOMICS IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6s4
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 6S4 FORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF POLITICAL THINKING 6s8 1. Ignorance and Confusion, 6S8; 2. Ticket Thinking
and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3. Surface Ideology
and Real Opinion, 671; 4. Pseudoconservatism, 67S; S. The Usurpation Complex, 68S; 6. F. D. R. , 689; 7. Bu-
? XXIV
CONTENTS
C.
reaucrats and Politicians, 693; 8. There Will Be No Utopia, 695; 9. No Pity for the Poor, 699; 10. Educa-
tion Instead of Social Change, 700
SOME POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TOPICS 702
1. Unions, 702; 2. Business and Government, 711; 3. Political Issues Close to the Subjects, 714; 4. Foreign Policy and Russia, 718; 5. Communism, 723
XVIII. SOME ASPECTS OF RELIGIOUS IDEOLOGY AS RE- VEALED IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W.
Adorno 727
A. INTRODUCTION 727
B. GENERAL OBSERV A TIONS 730
C. SPECIFIC ISSUES 733 1. The Function of Religion in High and Low Scorers,
733; 2. Belief in God, Disbelief in Immortality, 736; 3. The Irreligious Low Scorer, 738; 4. Religious Low Scorers, 742
XIX. TYPES AND SYNDROMES-T. W. Adorno 744
A. THE APPROACH 744
B. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG HIGH SCORERS 753
1. Surface Resentment, 753; 2. The "Conventional" Syn- drome, 756; 3. The "Authoritarian" Syndrome, 759; 4. The Rebel and the Psychopath, 763; 5. The Crank, 765; 6. The "Manipulative" Type, 767
C. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG LOW SCORERS 77I 1. The "Rigid" Low Scorer, 771; 2. The "Protesting" Low Scorer, 774; 3. The "Impulsive" Low Scorer, 776;
4. The "Easy-Going" Low Scorer, 778; 5. The Genuine Liberal, 781
PART v
APPLICATIONS TO INDIVIDUALS AND TO SPECIAL GROUPS
XX. GENETIC ASPECTS OF THE AUTHORITARIAN PER- SONALITY: CASE STUDIES OF TWO CONTRASTING INDIVIDUALS-R. Nevitt Sanford
A. INTRODUCTION
787 787 788
B. THE CASE OF MACK
1. Environmental Forces and Events, 789;
2. Deeper Per-
? CONTENTS XXV
sonality Needs, 794; 3. Dynamics of Surface Behavior
and Attitudes, 800
C. THE CONTRASTING CASE OF LARRY
XXI. CRIMINALITY AND ANTIDEMOCRATIC TRENDS: A STUDY OF PRISON INMATES-William R. Morrow 8r7 A. INTRODUCTION 8I7
1. The Problem, 817; 2. Sampling and Administration,
818; 3. Plan of Discussion, 822
B. ETHNOCENTRISM 823
1. General Questionnaire Statistics and Their Significance, 823; 2. Ideology Concerning Negroes: A Submerged Outgroup, 824; 3. Ideology Concerning Jews: A Sup- posed "Dominant" Outgroup, 830
c. POLITICO-ECONOMIC A TTITUDES
D. MORALS AND RELIGION 844
E. DEFENSES AGAINST WEAKNESS 856
F. HETEROSEXUALITY 866
G. ANTI-INTRACEPTIVENESS AND CHILDHOOD 873
H. A TTITUDES TO P ARENTS
875 I. "cRIMINALITY" IN HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 887
XXII. PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH IN RELATION TO POTENTIAL FASCISM: A STUDY OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTS-Maria Hertz Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
B. THE NATURE OF THE SAMPLE
C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC
E.
F.
The mountainous task of scoring, tabulating and performing innumerable statistical operations upon the material gathered by means of some zooo questionnaires was performed with patience and care by Ellan Ulery and Anne Batchelder Morrow. They were assisted in no small way by Lionel Whitnah, Jack Danielson, Frank Vanasek, and Nannette Heiman. Ellan Ulery and Anne Batchelder Morrow also deserve much credit for their scoring of the material elicited by the "projective questions" described in Chapter XV. Dr. Alfred Glixman is to b~ thanked for performing a special correlational analysis of our attitude scales-work which is described in Chapters IV and VII.
At different periods during the course of the study, Marjorie Castagnetto, Anne Vollmar and Zelma Seidner had charge of the secretarial work in Berkeley. Each in turn, with complete loyalty and superior competence, assumed the enormous burden of typing records and manuscripts and, in addition, took responsibility for the innumerable small but crucially im- portant tasks incident to keeping in motion a research involving numerous workers and subjects. Our most heartfelt thanks go to Anne Vollmar who, in addition to performing the secretarial work described above, labored with endless patience and devotion to make something relatively uniform and presentable out of the manuscripts of all shapes and sizes which we handed her-an editorial job of enormous proportion-and whose serenity and wisdom in practical matters were relied upon and deeply appreciated by all members of our staff. Alice Wilson, Alice Davis, Ruth Gay, Betty
? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XV
Cummings, and Edna Sexias also helped with the typing of records and manuscript; we greatly appreciate their willingness to be called upon when needed.
If we were to mention here all the people who cooperated by making arrangements for us to administer our questionnaires to the groups with which they were associated, and other people who assisted in particular aspects of the study, the list would be very long indeed. Acknowledgments are made at appropriate places in the chapters that follow.
To complete a special project lying within the scope of our study and to meet unexpected expenses connected with preparation of the manuscript for publication it was necessary to seek financial aid in addition to that described above. We are indebted to the Social Science Research Council for the Grant-in-Aid which made possible the correlational analysis de- scribed in Chapters IV and VII, and to the Rosenberg Foundation, the Re- search Board of the University of California, the Institute of Social Sciences of the University of California and the Graduate Division of Western Reserve University for their support in time of special need.
Finally, we are grateful to Dr. Felix J. Weil of the Institute of Social Re- search. He contributed many helpful criticisms of the manuscript, under- took the arduous task of coordinating all the proof reading, and performed invaluable services of an editorial nature.
THE AuTHORS
? III.
1. Ideology Concerning the Jews, 41; 2. General Eth- nocentrism, 43; 3. Politics, 45; 4. Religion, 52; 5. Vo- cation and Income, 54
THE STUDY OF ANTI-SEMITIC IDEOLOGY-Daniel]. Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ANTI-SEMITISM (A-S) SCALE
1. General Rules in Item Formulation, 59; 2. Major Sub- divisions or Areas: The Subscales, 62; 3. The Total Anti- Semitism (A-S) Scale, 68
CONTENTS
FOREWORD TO STUDIES IN PREJUDICE v PREFACE BY MAX HORKHEIMER ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii
I. INTRODUCTION
A. THE PROBLEM
B. METHODOLOGY
1. General Characteristics of the Method, 11; 2. The
Techniques, 13
C. PROCEDURES IN THE COLLECTION OF DATA
1. The Groups Studied, 19; 2. The Distribution and Collection of Questionnaires, 23; 3. The Selection of Subjects for Intensive Clinical Study, 25
PART I
THE MEASUREMENT OF IDEOLOGICAL TRENDS
II. THE CONTRASTING IDEOLOGIES OF TWO COL- LEGE MEN: A PRELIMINARY VIEW-R. Nevitt Sanford
A. INTRODUCTION
B. MACK; A MAN HIGH ON ETHNOCENTRISM
I I
I9
C. LARRY: A MAN LOW ON ETHNOCENTRISM D. ANALYSIS OF THE TWO CASES
3I
3I
32
37 39
57 57 58
xvii
? XVlll CONTENTS
IV.
C. RESUL TS: ST A TISTICAL ANAL YSIS OF THE SCALE 71 1. Reliability, 72; 2. lntercorrelations of the Subscales,
74; 3. Internal Consistency: Statistical Analysis of the Individual Items, 76
D. THE SHORT FORM OF THE A-S SCALE
E. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK At~D
LARRY ON THE A-S SCALE
F. DISCUSSION: THE STRUCTURE OF ANTI-SEMITIC IDEOLOGY 92
THE STUDY OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY-Daniel
f. Levinson 102
V.
POLITICO-ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY AND GROUP MEM- BERSHIPS IN RELATION TO ETHNOCENTRISM- Daniel f. Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
A. B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
INTRODUCTION 102 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ETHNOCENTRISM (E) SCALE 104 1. Major Subdivisions or Areas: The Subscales, 105; 2.
The Total Ethnocentrism (E) Scale, 109
RESUL TS: ST A TISTICAL ANAL YSIS OF THE SCALE 109 1. Reliability, 112; 2. lntercorrelations Among the Sub- scales, 113; 3. Internal Consistency: Statistical Analysis
of the Individual Items, 114; 4. Second Form of the E
Scale (Form 78), 116
THE INCLUSION OF ANTI-SEMITISM WITHIN GENERAL ETH- NOCENTRISM I22 1. The Third Form of the E Scale (Form 60), 123; 2. The Fourth Form of the E Scale (Forms 45 and 40), 127;
3. A Suggested FinalE Scale, 141
VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND LARRY ON THE E SCALE
CONCLUSIONS: THE STRUCTURE OF ETHNOCENTRIC IDEOLOGY 145
B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE (PEC) SCALE
POLITICO-ECONOMIC
CONSERV A TISM
I5I I53
1. Some Major Trends in Contemporary Liberalism and Conservatism, 153; 2. The Initial PEC Scale (Form 78), 157; 3. The Second PEC Scale (Form 60), 163; 4. The Third PEC Scale (Forms 45 and 40), 168; 5. Discussion: Some Patterns of Contemporary Liberalism and Conserva- tism, 175
C. THE RELA TION RETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND CONSERV A TISM 178 D. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE RESPONSES OF MACK AND
LARRY ON THE PEC SCALE
? of Religion and the Church, 215; C. DISCUSSION
D. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
3. ? Scale Items, 218
CONTENTS XlX
E. THE RELATION BETWEEN ETHNOCENTRISM AND MEMBERSHIP IN VARlOUS POLITICAL A~D ECO~OMIC GROUPINGS
F . CONCLUSIONS
VI. ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELATION TO SOME RELI- GIOUS ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES-R. Nevitt San- ford 208
A. INTRODUCTION 208
B. RESUL TS 208
1. Religious Group Memberships, 208; 2. "Importance"
VII. THE MEASUREMENT OF IMPLICIT ANTIDEMO- CRATIC TRENDS-R. Nevitt Sanford, T. W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, and Daniel f. Levinson 222
A. INTRODUCTION 222
B. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FASCISM (F) SCALE 224
1. The Underlying Theory, 224; 2. The Formulation of
Scale Items, 241
C. RESULTS WITH SUCCESSIVE FORMS OF THE F SCALE 242
1. Statistical Properties of the Preliminary Scale (Form 78), 242; 2. Item Analysis and Revision of the Prelimi- nary Scale, 244; 3. The Second F Scale: Form 60, 247; 4. The Third F Scale: Forms 45 and 40, 252
D. CORRELATIONS OF THE F SCALE WITH E AND WITH PEC 262
E. DIFFERENCES IN MEAN F-SCALE SCORE AMONG VARIOUS GROUPS 265
F. VALIDATION BY CASE STUDIES: THE F-SCALE RESPONSES OF
MACK AND LARRY
G. CONCLUSION
Vlll. ETHNOCENTRISM ? IN RELATION TO INTELLI- GENCE AND EDUCATION-Daniel f. Levinson 28o
PART II
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH CLINICAL
IX.
INTERVIEWS
THE INTERVIEWS AS AN APPROACH TO THE PREJ- UDICED PERSONALITY-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 291 A. INTRODUCTION: COMP ARISON OF GROUPS 291 B. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR THE INTERVIEWS 294
1. Basis of Selection, 294; 2. Representativeness of the
2I9 220
? XX
CONTENTS
Interviewees, 295; 3. Approaching the Interviewees, 300
C. THE INTERVIEWERS 301
D. SCOPE AND TECHNIQUE OF THE INTERVIEW 302 1. General Plan for the Interview, 302; 2. "Underlying"
and "Manifest" Questions, 303; 3. General Instructions
to the Interviewers, 303
E. THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 304
1. Vocation, 304; 2. Income, 307; 3. Religion, 310; 4. Clinical Data, 312; 5. Politics, 320; 6. Minorities and "Race," 322
F. THE SCORING OF THE INTERVIEWS 325 1. Quantification of Interview Data, 325; 2. Broad Out-
line of Categories in the Interview Scoring Manual, 326;
3. The Interview Rating Procedure and the Raters, 327;
4. Reliability of the Interview Ratings, 328; 5. Minimiz-
ing Halo-Effects in Rating the Interviews, 333; 6. Tabu- lation of Interview Ratings by Categories: Statistical Sig-
nificance, 334
X. PARENTS AND CHILDHOOD AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 337
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 337 ATTITUDES TOWARD PARENTS AND CONCEPTION OF THE FAMILY 338 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 338; 2. Idealization vs. Objective Appraisal of Par- ents, 340; 3. Genuineness of Affect, 346; 4. Feelings of Victimization, 347; 5. Submission vs. Principled Inde- pendence, 350; 6. Dependence for Things vs. Depend- ence for Love, 353; 7. Ingroup Orientation to the Family, 356
CONCEPTIONS OF CHILDHOOD ENVIRONMENT 358 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 358; 2. Image of the Father in Men: Distant and Stern vs. Relaxed and Mild, 359; 3. Image of the Father
in Women: The Role of Provider, 365; 4. Image of the Mother: Sacrifice, Moralism, Restrictiveness, 366; 5. Parental Conflict, 368; 6. Father-Dominated vs. Mother- Oriented Home, 370; 7. Discipline: Harsh Application of Rules vs. Assimilation of Principles, 371
CHILDHOOD EVENTS AND A TTITUDES TOW ARD SIBLINGS 376 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 376; 2. Attitudes Toward Siblings, 377; 3. Child- hood Events, 382; 4. Status Concern, 382
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FAMILY PATTERNS 384
C.
D.
E.
? C.
. D.
42 I
CONTENTS XXl
XI. SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTERVIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 390
A.
B.
A TTITUDE TOW ARD SEX 390 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 390; 2. Status via Sex, 393; 3. Moralistic Rejec-
- tion of Instinctual Tendencies, 395; 4. "Pure" vs. "Bad" Women, 397; 5. Ego-Alien Ambivalence vs. "Fondness," 399; 6. Exploitive Manipulation for Power, 400; 7. Conventionality vs. Individualism, 402; 8. Summary, 404 A TTITUDE TOW ARD PEOPLE
1.
Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 405; 2. Moralistic Condemnation vs. Permissive- ness, 406; 3. Extrapunitiveness, 409; 4. World as Jun- gle, 411; 5. Hierarchical vs. Equalitarian Conception of Human Relations, 413; 6. Dependence for Things, 414; 7. Manipulation vs. Libidinization of People and Genuine Work Adjustment, 415; 8. Social Status vs. Intrinsic Worth in Friendship, 418; 9. Summary, 420
A TTITUDE TOW ARD PRESENT SELF
1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
sults, 421; 2. Self-Glorification vs. Objective Appraisal, 423; 3. Masculinity and Femininity, 428; 4. Conven- tionalism and Moralism, 429; 5. Conformity of Self and Ideal, 430; 6. Denial of Sociopsychological Causation, 432; 7. Property as Extension of Self, 433
405
CONCEPTION OF CHILDHOOD SELF 434 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 434; 2. "Difficult" Child, 437; 3. Blandness vs. Adult-Orientation, 438; 4. Contrasting Picture of Child- hood and Present, 440; 5. Summary of Attitude Toward
Present Self and Childhood Self, 440
XII. DYNAMIC AND COGNITIVE PERSONALITY OR- GANIZATION AS SEEN THROUGH THE INTER-
VIEWS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik 442
A.
B.
DYNAMIC CHARACTER STRUCTURE 442 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re- sults, 442; 2. Orality and Anality, 445; 3. Dependence,
449; 4. Aggression, 450; 5. Ambivalence, 451; 6. Iden- tification, 452; 7. Superego, 454; 8. Strength of the Ego, 456; 9. Distortion of Reality, 457; 10. Physical Symptoms, 459
COGNITIVE PERSONALITY ORGANIZA TION 461 1. Definition of Rating Categories and Quantitative Re-
? XXll CONTENTS
sults, 461; 2. Rigidity, 461; 3. Negative Attitude To- ward Science. Superstition, 464; 4. Anti-Intraceptive- ness and Autism, 465; 5. Suggestibility, 467
XIII. COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF IN- TERVIEW RESULTS-Else Frenkel-Brunswik
A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED 468
1. Verification of Anticipated Trend by Categories, 468;
2. Composite Ratings for Seven Major Areas, 470
B. V ALITITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RA TINGS OF THE INTER-
VIEWS
1. Individual Composite Score Based on All Areas of Rat- ing, 471; 2. Over-all Intuitive Rating and Its Agree- ment with the Composite Score, 472; 3. Agreement with the Questionnaire Results, 472
471
C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY PATTERNS DERIVED FROM
THE INTERVIEWS 473 1. Introduction, 473; 2. Repression vs. Awareness, 474;
3. Externalization vs. Internalization, 474; 4. Conven- tionalism vs. Genuineness, 476; 5. Power vs. Love-Orien- tation, 478; 6. Rigidity vs. Flexibility. Problems of Ad- justment, 479; 7. Some Genetic Aspects, 482; 8. Cul- tural Outlook, 484
PART Ill
PERSONALITY AS REVEALED THROUGH PROJECTIVE
MA TERIAL
XIV. THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST IN THE STUDY OF PREJUDICED AND UNPREJUDICED IN- DIVIDUALS-Betty Aron 489
A. TESTING PROCEDURE 490
1. The Sample Tested, 490; 2. Technique of Adminis-
tration, 493; 3. The Pictures Used, 493
B. METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF THE STORY PROTOCOLS 496
1. The Murray-Sanford Scheme, 496; 2. Thematic Anal-
ysis, 506
C. THE T. A. T. S OF MACK A:KD LARRY
1. Larry's Stories, 530; 2. Mack's Stories, 534; 3. Anal-
529
543
ysis of the Stories, 537 D. SUMMARY
? A. B. C.
D.
E.
INTRODUCTION S4S QUANTIFICATION BY MEANS OF SCORING CATEGORIES S48 SCORING MANUAL: CATEGORIES OF PROJECTIVE QUESTION RESPONSE SSO RESULTS S79 1. Reliability of Scoring, S81; 2. Projective Question Scores in Relation to Standing on the E Scale, S84; 3. Validation by Means of Case Studies: Mack and Larry, S92 CONCLUSIONS S9S 1. General Ego Functioning, S9S; 2. Specific Properties
CONTENTS XXlll
XV. PROJECTIVE QUESTIONS IN THE STUDY OF PER- SONALITY AND IDEOLOGY-Daniel J. Levinson S4S
of the Ego, S96; 3. Achievement Values vs. Conven- tional Values, S97; 4. The Handling of Dependency as an Underlying Trend, S99; S. The Handling of Other Trends, 600
PART IV
QUALIT A TIVE STUDIES OF IDEOLOGY
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
603
XVI. PREJUDICE IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6os
A. INTRODUCTION 6os
B. THE "FUNCTIONAL" CHARACTER OF ANTI-SEMITISM 609
612 WHA T? 617 622
C. THE IMAGINARY FOE
D. ANTI-SEMITISM FOR
E. TWO KINDS OF JEWS
F. THE ANTI-SEMITE'S DILEMMA 627
G. PROSECUTOR AS JUDGE 629
H. THE MISFIT BOURGEOIS 637 I. OBSERVATIONS ON LOW-SCORING SUBJECTS 644
J . C O N C L U S I O N
6S 3
XVII. POLITICS AND ECONOMICS IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W. Adorno 6s4
A. B.
INTRODUCTION 6S4 FORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF POLITICAL THINKING 6s8 1. Ignorance and Confusion, 6S8; 2. Ticket Thinking
and Personalization in Politics, 663; 3. Surface Ideology
and Real Opinion, 671; 4. Pseudoconservatism, 67S; S. The Usurpation Complex, 68S; 6. F. D. R. , 689; 7. Bu-
? XXIV
CONTENTS
C.
reaucrats and Politicians, 693; 8. There Will Be No Utopia, 695; 9. No Pity for the Poor, 699; 10. Educa-
tion Instead of Social Change, 700
SOME POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TOPICS 702
1. Unions, 702; 2. Business and Government, 711; 3. Political Issues Close to the Subjects, 714; 4. Foreign Policy and Russia, 718; 5. Communism, 723
XVIII. SOME ASPECTS OF RELIGIOUS IDEOLOGY AS RE- VEALED IN THE INTERVIEW MATER/AL-T. W.
Adorno 727
A. INTRODUCTION 727
B. GENERAL OBSERV A TIONS 730
C. SPECIFIC ISSUES 733 1. The Function of Religion in High and Low Scorers,
733; 2. Belief in God, Disbelief in Immortality, 736; 3. The Irreligious Low Scorer, 738; 4. Religious Low Scorers, 742
XIX. TYPES AND SYNDROMES-T. W. Adorno 744
A. THE APPROACH 744
B. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG HIGH SCORERS 753
1. Surface Resentment, 753; 2. The "Conventional" Syn- drome, 756; 3. The "Authoritarian" Syndrome, 759; 4. The Rebel and the Psychopath, 763; 5. The Crank, 765; 6. The "Manipulative" Type, 767
C. SYNDROMES FOUND AMONG LOW SCORERS 77I 1. The "Rigid" Low Scorer, 771; 2. The "Protesting" Low Scorer, 774; 3. The "Impulsive" Low Scorer, 776;
4. The "Easy-Going" Low Scorer, 778; 5. The Genuine Liberal, 781
PART v
APPLICATIONS TO INDIVIDUALS AND TO SPECIAL GROUPS
XX. GENETIC ASPECTS OF THE AUTHORITARIAN PER- SONALITY: CASE STUDIES OF TWO CONTRASTING INDIVIDUALS-R. Nevitt Sanford
A. INTRODUCTION
787 787 788
B. THE CASE OF MACK
1. Environmental Forces and Events, 789;
2. Deeper Per-
? CONTENTS XXV
sonality Needs, 794; 3. Dynamics of Surface Behavior
and Attitudes, 800
C. THE CONTRASTING CASE OF LARRY
XXI. CRIMINALITY AND ANTIDEMOCRATIC TRENDS: A STUDY OF PRISON INMATES-William R. Morrow 8r7 A. INTRODUCTION 8I7
1. The Problem, 817; 2. Sampling and Administration,
818; 3. Plan of Discussion, 822
B. ETHNOCENTRISM 823
1. General Questionnaire Statistics and Their Significance, 823; 2. Ideology Concerning Negroes: A Submerged Outgroup, 824; 3. Ideology Concerning Jews: A Sup- posed "Dominant" Outgroup, 830
c. POLITICO-ECONOMIC A TTITUDES
D. MORALS AND RELIGION 844
E. DEFENSES AGAINST WEAKNESS 856
F. HETEROSEXUALITY 866
G. ANTI-INTRACEPTIVENESS AND CHILDHOOD 873
H. A TTITUDES TO P ARENTS
875 I. "cRIMINALITY" IN HIGH AND LOW SCORERS 887
XXII. PSYCHOLOGICAL ILL HEALTH IN RELATION TO POTENTIAL FASCISM: A STUDY OF PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC PATIENTS-Maria Hertz Levinson
A. INTRODUCTION
B. THE NATURE OF THE SAMPLE
C. STATISTICAL RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
D. RELATIONSHIP OF ETHNOCENTRISM TO VARIOUS PSYCHIATRIC
E.
F.
